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The effectiveness of the translator's work in the process. Training of translators in a language university

The most important part of the training of future translators is to develop their skills that are carried out in the process of translation. Such skills may have a more general or more private character, cover a series of actions or a single action.

The specificity of the development of translation skills lies in the fact that they are created only as a result of the practical actions of students on the basis of their language skills and theoretical knowledge.

Skill building is a long process. It is possible to set as the goal of a separate lesson the development of this or that skill, but it cannot be expected that it will be finally formed as a result of this lesson. Often, during practical exercises in translating texts of varying difficulty, several skills are simultaneously developed. Not all skills that ensure a successful translation process can be identified and described. Some of them wear complex character and is difficult to analyze.

1. Ability to perform parallel actions in two languages, switch from one language to another. As we have already noted,

this skill partly arises spontaneously with the development of bilingualism, but it must be brought to a professional level. The development of this skill is facilitated by the study of translation correspondence and translation techniques, but the main way to improve it lies through the constant bilingual action, the implementation of translations of both entire texts and their fragments. The speech of the teacher plays a certain role in this process. Since an important component of this skill is the use of synonymous means of the target language, it is advisable to conduct the lesson in this language. When developing interpreting skills, it is helpful to encourage students to mentally translate everything the teacher says. In this case, the teacher can alternately speak TL and FL.

2. The ability to understand the text in translation. Let us recall that although at the first stage of the translation process the translator acts as the Receptor of the original, his understanding of the text is somewhat different from the usual one, primarily in the necessary depth and finality.

The teacher needs to show and constantly remind students that they must simultaneously draw information about the meaning of language units in the text from two sources: the system meaning of the unit and the context of its use. Each language unit has a relatively stable meaning, common to the entire language community. Speakers are forced to use the unit according to its meaning if they want to be correctly understood. A word can have multiple meanings, but it cannot mean anything. So, the English "board" can mean "commission, board, food" and a number of others, but it can never mean "Universe", "love" and "running". In the text, a word can realize one or two of its meanings or acquire some additional semantic connotation due to the context. The English "student" can be used in the sense of "a student of a secondary or higher educational institution", "university student", "student high school”,“ studying ”(I am a student of human nature”), Russian. "student" can realize the masculine seme (Students often do better than students) or neutralize it (A good student won't come to class unprepared), etc. It often happens that a future translator exaggerates the importance of one of two sources of information: he stubbornly strives to use

the dictionary meaning of the word, without paying attention to the context, or offers a variant that is suitable for the context, but does not take into account the meaning of the word at all. In such cases, the teacher points out the error to the student, demonstrating how these two "whales" should interact, on which the correct understanding of the text is based. For example: "In the past the race has never been a contest".

3. Performing parallel actions in two languages in the process of translation involves the development of another skill - the ability to build synonymous structures and synonymous words in the TL and make a choice between them. Thus, the idea that earlier the competition was not tense, but now such tension has appeared, can be expressed by such Russian structures as “the struggle in the competition has intensified”, “the competition has become more intense”, “the competition has begun to arouse intense interest”, etc. d. The word "race" can correspond to the Russian words "race, chase, race, competition", etc.

Right choice between different translation options is also associated with the ability to compare the meanings of each correspondence with a specific context. So, analyzing the use of the word "race" in Russian, it can be noted that it is limited to those sports where any technical means. Since the text refers to a race on the run, this option will have to be rejected. The “chase” option (pursuing the weaker in order to catch up and punish) and the “running” option and (a stage of the competition that has a beginning and an end) do not correspond to the context.

4. Let us remind you once again that the skill that can be described as the ability to “leave without moving away” is of particular importance for the translator. If it is impossible to apply a direct correspondence, the translator is forced to deviate from the original, but at the same time he strives to stay as close as possible to the original meaning. This strategy of "least loss" is achieved primarily by varying the language form, as well as by using the closest synonyms.

5. Translation competence also includes the ability to choose and correctly use technique translation, which must be previously studied by students. While translating the text, the teacher offers students to use

when translating the next statement, one or another technique or ask them a question which technique is appropriate to use in this case. The course program also includes work on specially selected exercises that develop the ability to use creative translation techniques.

6. A significant place in teaching translation is occupied by the development of the ability to overcome difficulties associated with the lexical, phraseological, grammatical and stylistic features of the source language. Using the data of a particular translation theory, the teacher offers students exercises where each translation difficulty of this type is presented in sufficient quantity as part of individual statements or in a coherent text (see the section on translation exercises).

7. When translating into their native language, students are supposed to be able to competently and correctly express their thoughts in the target language. However, often the teacher has to take care and improve this skill with the help of special tasks and constant attention to the quality of the target language and the development of communicative and speech competence. To a much greater extent, such work is necessary when teaching translation from a native language into a foreign one.

8. The translator needs the ability to edit his own and other people's translations, detect and eliminate semantic and stylistic errors, critique and evaluate the proposed options in a convincing manner. During the educational process, the teacher constantly invites students to give their own options, express opinions about the translations of their comrades, justify their comments and suggestions. It is also advisable to give students special tasks for editing translations containing typical translation errors and inaccuracies.

9. The successful implementation of the translation process requires the ability to professionally use dictionaries, reference books, data banks and other sources of additional information, as well as the ability to use a typewriter, voice recorder or computer.

10. All of the above skills come together in the ability to analyze the original text, identify standard and non-standard

specific translation problems and choose the ways to solve them that are most appropriate for each specific act of translation. This skill is developed only during practical work under the guidance of a teacher to translate texts of varying degrees of difficulty. This work is carried out both in the process of developing private skills, and at the final stage of training.

A professional translator must not only have the necessary skills to carry out the translation process, but also be able to apply these skills in real conditions translation activities. Therefore, in the course of training in translation, work is carried out to develop translation skills, that is, to give the translator's actions an automatic or semi-automatic character. This is achieved both by constant exercises in the use of translation skills, and by regular tasks for the practical implementation of translations of a certain volume in a specified period of time.

Introduction

Chapter I

1.1. Translation as an activity. Definition of the concept of translation

1.2. General principles for organizing translation training

Chapter I Conclusions

Chapter II. Formation of the component of translation competence

2.1. Professional competence of a translator

2.2. Complexes of tasks in the preparation of a translator

2.3. Exercises in the process of learning to translate

Chapter II Conclusions

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The need to train a large number of professional translators arose relatively recently, although translation is a very ancient human activity. Without translators, it would be impossible to communicate with multilingual tribes and nationalities, the existence of states and empires inhabited by numerous and multilingual peoples, the establishment of the culture of dominant nations with great social prestige, and the spread of religious and social teachings.

Translation activities in modern world acquires everything large scale and more and more social significance. The profession of translators has become a mass one, and in many countries special educational institutions have been created to train professional translators. In these educational institutions, the ability to professionally carry out translation activities is the ultimate goal of education. In order to translate well, it is necessary to know the laws of translation, determined by its complex and contradictory nature, to clearly understand the requirements that society places on translation and translator.

A great contribution to the development of the science of translation studies was made by L.K. Latyshev. By doing term paper his work was used. The manual "The structure and content of the training of translators in a language university", created in collaboration with V.I. Provotorov, aims to form students' basic and special components of translation competence and contains a system of tasks aimed at developing the skills and abilities of translation activity. Together with A.L. Semenov created a manual "Translation: Theory, Practice and Methods of Teaching", which deals with the practice of translation and methods of its teaching. The textbook by V.N. Komissarov "Modern Translation Studies", which can help translators to correctly assess the quality of their work, understand the problems that arise, and correctly navigate the peculiarities of their profession.

The purpose of the course work is to consider the structure and content of the training of translators in a language university.

· Study the literature on the topic;

· Give basic definitions;

· Consider the principles of organizing the training of translators;

· To study the basic competencies of an interpreter;

· Define tasks in the preparation of translators;

· Consider a number of exercises used in teaching translation.

Chapter I . Theoretical foundations for teaching translators at a language university

1.1. Translation as an activity. Definition of the concept of translation

Translation is one of the types of human activity. Activity is a psychological concept denoting “specific processes that carry out one or another life, i.e. active, relation of the subject to reality. The activity has a complex structure. It consists of actions and operations. It is characterized by the presence of such factors (determinants) that control it, such as need, motive, goals, conditions in which it occurs.

Any activity arises from a need. A need directed to a certain object is called a motive. The subject of activity (need) can be both real and ideal.

By his activity, the translator satisfies not a personal, but a social need, and at the same time he is guided not by a personal motive, but by a motive prescribed to him by society. The purpose of translation activity is "the production of speech utterances according to a certain social order".

Translation satisfies the ever-emerging need for communication between people who do not speak common language, or, in other words, people separated by a linguistic-ethnic barrier.

The question of the public purpose of translation is closely related to the question of its definition. The vast majority of definitions agree that translation is the process of transforming text in one language into text in another language while maintaining relatively unchanged content.

A number of definitions of translation, along with reference to the accuracy of the presentation of the original content, include an indication of the functional and stylistic adequacy of the translated text, its correspondence to the original in terms of style and form. The position of Ya.I. Retzker that "the translation should convey not only what is expressed by the original, but also as it is expressed in it" . However, this possibility (correspondence between the form of the translation and the original) is quite limited.

The definition of a translation can be built on a list of its relative features, if this list is sufficiently complete.

The vulnerability of many definitions of translation and the requirements for it can be seen in the fact that they are put forward either a priori - as a matter of course, or on a purely empirical basis - as a result of the authors' practical acquaintance with translation. Such an approach to solving the problem does not allow one to go beyond definitions, which are a list of translation properties.

The author of the work will proceed from the following definition: "Translation" in the meaning of a product of human activity - a text in oral or written form. "Translation" in the meaning of the translator's activity is the process of creating this product. The translator needs to have an adequate understanding of the translation in both incarnations.

1.2. General principles for organizing translation training

Translation is a very complex type of speech-thinking activity that requires specific knowledge and skills and is carried out largely intuitively. As a result of acquiring such knowledge and skills (in the process of learning or through long-term practice), an intuitive ability to properly solve translation problems develops. Naturally, the success of creation and the achieved level of such an ability largely depend on the individual data of the student. It is possible that the most outstanding results in translation activities can only be achieved by those individuals who have an innate predisposition (talent) for this particular occupation. There are also cases when especially gifted translators, without special training and special efforts, demonstrated high translation skills from the very beginning. However, experience shows that translation is not reserved for only a few especially gifted people and that the majority of trainees can achieve the required professional level in this field of activity. Of course, the success of education in to no small extent depends on the organization of the educational process, curriculum and teaching methods.

So, translation should be taught as a special academic discipline, and mastering the ability to translate is not (exclusively) the prerogative of especially gifted people. This position is now generally recognized, and in all educational institutions that train translators, students are offered classes in the theory and practice of translation. The method of teaching translation is based on the belief that a person has the ability to translate genetically, as well as the ability to master languages, although everyone individual person possesses this ability to varying degrees, it can be developed and brought to a professional level.

Translation training has not only a purely applied value - the creation of the necessary translation competence among students. It also performs important general linguistic and general educational functions. Translation classes encourage students to pay attention to the finest nuances of semantics and connotative aspects of language units, reveal the originality systemic organization and the functioning of languages, the features of the "picture of the world" created by each language, the general and particular in the culture and thinking of representatives of different language communities. The creation of translation competence contributes to the comprehensive development of the personality of future translators: it forms in them attentiveness and a sense of responsibility, the ability to use reference books and additional sources information, make choices, quickly make the right decisions, discover and compare numerous linguistic and extralinguistic data. The professional training of a translator presupposes a high culture, wide encyclopedic erudition, sociability, tact, constant replenishment of knowledge, and a variety of interests. All these qualities are manifested in two languages and two cultures.

However, the main task of the translation course is not to provide students with a certain body of knowledge, but to train them to be highly qualified specialists capable of performing translations at a professional level. Therefore, a significant part of the course is devoted to the development of professional translation skills, mastering the elements of a translation strategy and technique, and gaining experience in translating texts of varying degrees of complexity.

The organization and methods of teaching translation are determined by the adoption of a number of initial postulates:

· Translation is considered as a complex and multifaceted type of mental activity that can pursue different goals, be carried out in different conditions, in different ways and under the influence of many factors.

· Like any activity, translation requires for its implementation certain knowledge, skills (conscious performance of certain actions) and skills (semi-automatic and automatic performance of certain actions), which must be created in the learning process.

· Translation activities can be carried out by the translator consciously (as a result of analysis and reasonable conclusions) or intuitively. The ratio of conscious and intuitive is different for different translators and when translating different texts and under different conditions. The ability to carry out conscious and intuitive translation actions (translation competence) can be developed in the process of learning and practical work.

· The implementation of translation competence occurs with the participation of the entire linguistic personality of the translator. It assumes that he has comprehensive cognitive and linguistic knowledge, broad general cultural erudition, the necessary psychological qualities and literary abilities. All these qualities should be developed and encouraged in translation training.

The task of teaching translation is not to learn any norms, rules or recipes that a translator could automatically apply in all cases, but to master the principles, methods and techniques of translation and the ability to choose and apply them differently in specific conditions, to different texts and for different purposes. Particular tasks solved by a translator in the process of translation can be typical, allowing the use of a known technique or method of solving, and individual, requiring a new solution based on general principles translation strategy and taking into account the peculiarities of the context and situation. The search for a solution also includes conclusions about the possibility of using a known technique or method for deciding whether it is necessary to modify it or abandon the typical one in favor of a unique, occasional one.

· The object of translation activity is the information contained in the source text. The content of the text (message) is a semantically and formally complete whole, the individual parts of which are interconnected, but not equally significant for communication. The ratio of the whole and its parts is distinguished in different ways in the process of translation: depending on the type of translation and its purpose. A more accurate and complete reproduction of individual elements of the text in translation is possible if they turn out to be more or less important. In this sense, the whole may (or may not) be relatively more significant than its parts.

· The linguistic units that make up the text are not in themselves the object of translation. However, through them the content of the text is formed, and the presence in the text of certain language tools has semantic significance and can determine the nature of translation tasks and create special difficulties for translation. In this sense, there is a problem of transferring the meaning of linguistic units in translation as part of the global content of the text.

· This ratio also determines the nature of the teaching materials used in teaching translation. First of all, these are texts of various types, which make it possible to bring educational translation closer to the working conditions of a professional translator. However, in educational purposes both separate parts of the text and separate statements are used, which allow highlighting typical translation difficulties and tasks in the minimum necessary context.

In the process of teaching translation, one should study not the methods of translating the educational material used (text, utterance, word), but methods for solving typical translation problems and a strategy for searching for individual creative solutions. In this sense, translation training presupposes the ability to single out typical translation tasks in the educational material and formulate general principles and particular methods for solving them. In different types of translation, both general principles and techniques, as well as specific methods for each type, can be applied.

· The nature of interlingual communication predetermines the fundamental multiplicity of translation options for the same segments of the original. In this regard, in the learning process, students are not tasked with creating the only correct (or optimal) translation of the proposed text. At the same time, the learning process includes a critical assessment of educational translations and the rejection of unacceptable options.

Let us first try to briefly characterize the knowledge and skills that make up the main content of training. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that there is a close relationship between them and many skills can only be created on the basis of relevant knowledge. In the course of training, the future translator should acquire, in general, the following knowledge:

· get an idea about the main stages of the history of translation and the features of translation activity in the modern world;

· get an idea about the concept of translatability, non-identity of the content of the original and translation, the principle of ensuring minimal losses;

· get an idea about the concepts of interlingual communication, equivalence and adequacy of translation;

get an idea about pragmatic aspects translation and the main ways of pragmatic translation adaptation;

· get an idea about the classification of translations and different types of translation strategy;

· to study the main models of translation and translation transformations and how to use them in the analysis of the translation process and its results;

· to study the main types of translation correspondences and methods of translation of non-equivalent language units;

get an idea of the basic principles of translation of a coherent text;

get an idea of the grammatical and stylistic aspects of the translation.

All said knowledge communicated to students both at special lectures and seminars, and during practical exercises. At the same time, it is very important that students clearly see the connection between the acquired knowledge and translation practice, their necessity for solving specific problems of translation.

A professional translator needs to have an idea of the socio-historical role of translation and the main stages in the development of translation activity. He should be aware of the enormous contribution of translators to the formation national language, literature and culture of peoples, about the role of translation in international contacts in the field of diplomacy, politics, trade, science and technology. All this knowledge allows future translators to realize the complexity and importance of their profession, to get acquainted with the material and organizational aspects translator's work.

The understanding of the essence of translation activity is based on the understanding of translation as one of the main ways of language mediation, which provides the possibility of communication between people who speak different languages. Future translators study the main components of interlingual communication and the factors influencing its implementation, get acquainted with various types language mediation and single out translation as a way of creating a text in the target language intended for a full-fledged functional replacement of the original text. Students get acquainted with the basic requirements that a translation must satisfy in order to successfully fulfill its communicative function: the requirement of equivalence, that is, the necessary and sufficient degree of closeness to the original, and the requirement of adequacy, that is, the ability to perform the pragmatic task for which the translation was made, to produce desired communication effect.

Chapter Conclusions I

Translation is one of the types of human activity. The translator satisfies the social need by his activity.

Translation is the process of converting text in one language into text in another language while keeping the content relatively unchanged.

Translation should be taught as a special academic discipline, and mastering the ability to translate is not the prerogative of especially gifted people. This position is now generally recognized, and in all educational institutions that train translators, students are offered classes in the theory and practice of translation. The methodology of teaching translation is based on the belief that a person has the ability to translate genetically, as well as the ability to master languages.

Chapter II . Formation of the component of translation competence

2.1. Professional competence of a translator

In the process of creating professional translation competence, a peculiar linguistic personality is formed, which has a number of differences from a non-translating personality. These differences are revealed in all the main aspects of speech communication: linguistic, text-forming, communicative, personal and vocational.

The organization of the training of translators is largely determined by the fact that the translator has to perform very diverse activities that provide different forms of interlingual communication. Education different types translation requires special methodological techniques. A professional translator may specialize in one or more types of translation.

The language competence of a translator includes all aspects of language proficiency that are characteristic of any native speaker, but also implies a number of specific features. Just like any participant in linguistic communication, the translator keeps in his memory knowledge about the system, norm and usage of the language, about its vocabulary and grammatical structure, about the rules for using language units to construct speech utterances, about the predominant use of certain sets of language units in various fields communication, about territorial, social and professional differences in the use of such units, about the influence on the choice and nature of the use of language units of the environment of communication and the relationship of participants in communication, their role functions. All this knowledge and the corresponding psycho-physiological abilities and speech-thinking mechanisms are necessary for understanding the original text and creating the translation text.

At the same time, the specificity of the translator's speech activity imposes additional requirements on his linguistic competence, which are due not only to the fact that the translator must have sufficient linguistic competence in the field of not one, but two languages. For the translator, the scope and goals of communication, the choice and method of using language means are largely set by the original and do not depend on it. own desire. Therefore, the translator must have comprehensive linguistic competence, both receptively and productively, in both languages involved in the translation process. Of course, the linguistic competence of each translator has its limits, but the wider these limits, the higher his general professional competence.

Successful exchange of speech works in the process of communication presupposes that the communicants have text-forming competence, the ability to create texts of various types in accordance with the rules and stereotypes accepted in a given language community. The professional competence of a translator includes knowledge of the correlation of such rules in two languages and the ability to construct texts of various types. The text-forming competence of the translator also includes knowledge of the differences in the general strategy of constructing a text in two languages, both in terms of the nature of semantic coherence - text coherence (for example, the greater role of implicitness in an English text compared to Russian), and in ways of ensuring formal cohesion - cohesion ( for example, the wider use of logical connectives in Russian text compared to English).

An important place in the professional competence of a translator is occupied by his communicative competence. A billing translator has communicative competence in two languages, without which it is impossible to master these languages. At the same time, the professional competence of a translator implies not only the ability to interpret the meaning of statements and texts. The translator's communicative competence includes the ability to project the inferential capabilities of translation receptors onto statements in the original text. The translator is constantly forced to decide whether the reproduction of the linguistic content of the original statement in the translation can serve as a sufficient basis for the correct conclusion about the global meaning, given the differences in background knowledge and in the communication environment of the translation receptors. If necessary, the translator corrects the ratio of the linguistic content and the derived meaning by introducing the missing background information into the statement itself or reporting it in notes and footnotes. Thus, unlike ordinary communicators, the communicative competence of an interpreter is comparatively dynamic in nature.

The professional competence of a translator necessarily includes some personal characteristics, without which he will not be able to successfully perform his professional functions. Translation is a complex type of mental activity, the implementation of which requires a special mental organization, its great plasticity and flexibility, the ability to quickly switch attention, move from one language to another, from one culture to another, from one communicative situation to another. The translator needs the ability to concentrate, mobilize the resources of his memory, all his intellectual and emotional potentials.

Of particular note is the moral and ethical component of the translator's professional competence. He carries full responsibility for the quality of his work, for the moral and material damage that may result from his dishonesty. Translation activity, like no other, is entirely based on the trust of translation receptors in the results of the translator's work. An interpreter can justify this trust only due to his great composure, efficiency and exclusion of any elements of a frivolous, careless attitude to business.

The formation of the professional competence of a translator involves the development of a special type of personality, corresponding to the moral and ethical characteristics of this profession.

And, finally, the professional competence of an interpreter includes technical competence - specific knowledge, skills and abilities necessary to perform this type of activity. Translation knowledge provides an understanding of the essence and tasks of translation activity, familiarity with the main provisions of the theory of translation, with options for a translation strategy and translation techniques. The translator's strategy covers three groups of general principles for the implementation of the translation process: some initial postulates, the choice of a general course of action that the translator will be guided by when making specific solutions, and the choice of the nature and sequence of actions in the translation process. The initial postulates of the translation strategy are largely determined by the intermediary role of the translator, the secondary nature of his work. The activity of a translator only makes sense when it justifies the hopes of the participants in interlingual communication. Therefore, the translator's overall strategy is based on the desire to understand the translated text as fully as possible and to find the most exact match for it in the target language.

A decisive role in the professional technique of an interpreter is played by the possession of special skills. Not all skills that ensure a successful translation process can be identified and described. Some of them are complex and difficult to analyze. Among the translation skills, the most important are the following:

1. Ability to perform parallel actions in two languages, switch from one language to another. This skill partially arises spontaneously with the development of bilingualism, but it must be brought to a professional level, which is achieved by studying translation correspondences and translation techniques, and most importantly - through constant bilingual actions - the implementation of translations of both entire texts and their fragments.

2. The ability to understand the text in translation. Although at the first stage of the translation process the translator acts as the Receptor of the original, his understanding of the text differs from the usual depth and finality. Ordinary Receptors are often content with a very rough understanding of the text. Having met, for example, a message that a certain person is a “bright personality” or that he made a “bright speech”, a Russian person may not think about the exact meaning of the word “bright”. It is clear to him that it conveys a very positive assessment and does not need to be specified. However, when translating into English, the translator will have to make the final choice between possible interpretations, since he must decide which English words(brilliant, impressive, graphic, moving, extraordinary) can be used as a match. The translator's understanding of the original text is to a certain extent determined by the peculiarities of the target language. So, when analyzing the meaning of an English verb in the past tense, the translator will be forced to look for additional information in the original that will allow him to make a choice in the translation between the perfect and imperfect view. (Compare, for example: When in Paris, I went to the Opera).

3. Performing parallel actions in two languages in the process of translation implies the ability to move in statements in each of the languages from the surface structure to the deep one and vice versa. If it is impossible to use a similar surface structure in the target language, the translator looks for the deep structure of the statement in the source language, trying to answer the question: what does this phrase essentially mean? What did the author want to say? The translator then solves the following problem: in what ways can this deeper meaning be expressed in the target language? This is also connected with the ability to build synonymous surface structures and synonymous words in the target language and make a choice between them.

4. Of particular importance for an interpreter is a special skill that can be described as the ability to "leave without moving away." If it is impossible to apply a direct correspondence, the translator is forced to deviate from the original, but at the same time he strives to stay as close as possible to the original meaning. This "least loss" strategy is achieved primarily by varying the linguistic form, as well as by using the closest synonyms.

5. Translation competence includes the ability to choose and correctly use translation techniques and overcome difficulties associated with lexical, phraseological, grammatical and stylistic features of the source language. This skill is based on the description of these techniques and the difficulties of translation, obtained within the framework of the corresponding particular theory of translation.

6. The main translation skills are brought together in the ability to analyze the original text, identify standard and non-standard translation problems and choose the ways to solve them that are most appropriate for each specific act of translation. Related to this is the ability to edit one's own and other people's translations, to detect and eliminate semantic and stylistic errors, to criticize and evaluate the proposed options in a convincing manner.

Actually, translation skills are realized on the basis of the whole complex of speech skills that make up the knowledge of the languages involved in the translation process. Some skills can be turned into semi-automatic or automatic skills and used intuitively by translators. All components of a translator's professional competence are developed in the process of learning to translate or in the course of practical translation activities.

The concept of translation competence is of great theoretical and practical interest. It needs further research to clarify its constituent factors and ways of its formation and development.

2.2. Complexes of tasks in the preparation of a translator

For a translator, an effective way of knowing the corresponding subject area(within the limits necessary for its work) with the simultaneous assimilation of terminology - immediately or sequentially in two languages. This is the first set of tasks in the preparation of a translator.

The second set of tasks is a practical training in translation using knowledge and terminology from the relevant subject area.

1. Knowledge of the subject area and the assimilation of terminology

We list the most well-known methods for solving the problems of this complex.

Lexical and translational complex of classes

Typically, classes begin with reading text on foreign language, relating, as a rule, to a limited and more or less integral part of the studied subject area. The text (4500-5000 printed characters) is accompanied by a list of foreign language terms with a translation into Russian. Separate terms, if necessary, can be provided with a detailed comment. Such explanations are usually made in those cases when a foreign language concept is little known in the culture of the target language or when there is no exact terminological designation for it in the target language.

The text is translated in the classroom (usually from a sheet) or at home. In the latter case homework checked in class.

This is followed by a series of tasks (exercises) to consolidate the new terminology. For example:

Find answers to the following questions in the text (questions are drawn up in such a way that new terms appear in the answers to them);

Instead of gaps, insert words and phrases that are suitable in meaning (meaning, again, new terms and terminological clichés that are given in a small list or must be found in the text);

Translate the conversation (questions in Russian - answers in foreign).

Introduction to the subject (in class)

Classes begin with reading a special text in Russian and discussing it, structured in such a way that the basic concepts of the subject area are used as often as possible. Most often, the discussion is built in the form of answers to questions with the inevitable use of appropriate terminology.

This can be followed by exercises designed for the conscious assimilation of the corresponding system of concepts:

Questions to the read text;

The task is to write out the most important concepts of this subject area from the text;

Draw up a diagram reflecting the hierarchy of these concepts (if it is sufficiently clearly expressed);

To a drawing or diagram, where constituent elements marked with numbers, match the numbers with the appropriate terms.

Then a foreign text on the same topic is worked out. It is desirable that in terms of content it largely coincides with the text in Russian, but does not cope in the same way as the translation coincides with the original.

After that, tasks are performed that are partially similar to those that were performed after the study of the text in Russian.

Tasks for independent study of the subject of the statement

Students may be given the following task: to independently prepare for the translation of a special text, a series of speeches on a special topic, or to work as a translator on a special topic within the framework of a scientific conference, negotiations, etc. This is how, on their own, professional translators prepare for translation on special topics.

It would be most correct for students to prepare using real reference literature. Given all the known difficulties, instead of reference literature, you can use the special translation created for the course study guides introduction to a specific area.

According to international standards regulating professional activity translators, approximately two weeks before the start of the event at which they are to work, translators should be provided with materials (abstracts) so that they can enter into special topics. However, very often this is not observed, and translators have to, as they say, “play from sight”. Therefore, it is advisable for translators to be able to prepare for work both with the materials of speeches and without them, according to reference literature.

As a minimum introduction to the subject, a written translation of a special text can serve, where the topics with which the translator will work in the future are sufficiently fully represented. This way of getting acquainted with the subject of the utterance is the simplest and "economical".

2. Development of direct special translation skills

Special translation is implemented in the following forms:

Written translation of scientific and technical texts, business correspondence, contracts, charters, feasibility studies, projects, decisions arbitration courts, examination certificates;

Simultaneous, visual-oral, paragraph-phrase or sequential (with notes) translation of speeches at scientific, scientific-practical and practical conferences, as well as lectures;

Bilateral translation of negotiations, business and scientific discussions,

For many translators, true sight translation (without preliminary reading, preparation) is much more difficult than translation by ear. It should also be borne in mind that many speakers often deviate from what was written. Therefore, when translating from a sheet, one must always be ready to translate by ear.

No matter how carefully a translator prepares for his work, no one can exclude the possibility that he will not come across this or that concept that he does not know, this or that term for which he does not know the translation equivalent. In these cases, the translator has to "get out". This requires the following skills:

The ability to convey concepts in translation not with the help of terms, but with the help of descriptive translation;

The ability to immediately form, if not terms, then such names for concepts, the essence of which would be clear to the audience.

If the translator does not resort to these techniques too often, then the audience perceives them with understanding, because they know that the language intermediary cannot compete with specialists.

2.3. Exercises in the process of learning to translate

Exercise is the main way to develop the necessary skills. Translation skills can also be developed in the process of translating a coherent text. However, the translation of any text is always associated with the solution of a number of translation tasks, and it is practically very difficult to find a text in which some translation problem prevailed or at least occurred quite often. A specially selected exercise makes it possible to focus the trainees' attention on ways to solve a particular translation problem. Working with exercises is a significant part of the translation training course. In the process of this work, ways to overcome the difficulties of translation are studied, translation techniques are worked out, translation skills are developed and the basis for improving translation skills is created.

According to the nature of the speech actions performed, the exercises are divided into pre-translation and actual translation. Pre-translation exercises are aimed at creating conditions for the successful implementation of the translation process, creating the necessary communicative attitude, checking students' language and background knowledge, showing them how experienced highly qualified translators solve typical translation tasks. The main exercises of this type are the comparison of parallel texts in the source language and the target language in order to identify their differences, comparison of published translations with their originals and a critical analysis of the methods and techniques used by the translator, answers to questions to the text, checking the depth of understanding and the availability of the necessary background knowledge, discussion of the concepts underlying the content of the text, and related terms and concepts, various exercises to improve the proficiency in the target language (drawing up synonymic series and differentiation of the meanings of synonyms, stylistic assessment of the proposed options, paraphrasing statements, speeches in given topic etc.).

Actually translation exercises are divided into:

· linguistic, developing the ability to solve translation problems related to the peculiarities of the semantics of units and structures of the source language and the target language;

operating rooms, practicing the ability to use various methods and techniques of translation;

· communicative, creating the ability to successfully perform the necessary actions at different stages of the translation process. In accordance with the type of exercise, the task for its implementation is also formulated. In language exercises, the task indicates the language unit or structure, the meaning of which should be taken into account in translation. Here, the student's task may include the translation of isolated language units, the transfer of the meanings of these units and structures as part of statements, the translation of statements containing certain units and structures. In operational exercises, the task is to use the indicated technique when translating or independently choose the appropriate technique and justify the choice and method of its application. Communication exercises include tasks to determine the contextual meanings of language units, interpret the meaning of the statement, select correspondences and translation options, and comprehensively solve translation problems when translating statements and segments of text of varying difficulty. In other words, such exercises develop the ability to carry out individual stages of the translation process as a whole.

Each exercise is intended to solve a specific problem, which is formulated in the task in accordance with its type. However, in many cases, the execution of the task requires the solution, in addition to the main one, of a number of side tasks. The teacher should decide in advance what additional problems he will discuss with students when working with the exercise.

As a rule, the exercise includes 15-20 sentences containing a certain translation difficulty. These sentences are selected from different texts, because, as already indicated, it is difficult to select a coherent text in which the desired problem is presented in sufficient quantity. The material for such exercises are texts devoid of individual author's features in the use of language means. The need to use statements taken out of context creates difficulties for their understanding and translation. These difficulties are overcome in three ways. First, the teacher seeks to select self-sufficient sentences, the interpretation of which does not need a wider context. If necessary, a slight modification of individual sentences is possible, clarifying their content, but not violating their naturalness. Secondly, the teacher should always be ready to inform students additional information eliminating ambiguity. Thirdly, one way to work with the exercises can be to discuss comprehension and translation options that will be correct in the various linguistic and situational contexts in which a given statement can be placed.

Chapter Conclusions II

The language competence of a translator includes all aspects of language proficiency that are characteristic of any native speaker, but also implies a number of specific features. Successful exchange of speech works in the process of communication presupposes that the communicants have text-forming competence, the ability to create texts of various types in accordance with the rules and stereotypes accepted in a given language community. The translator's communicative competence includes the ability to project the inferential capabilities of translation receptors onto statements in the original text. The professional competence of a translator necessarily includes some personal characteristics, without which he will not be able to successfully perform his professional functions. The professional competence of an interpreter includes technical competence - specific knowledge, skills and abilities necessary to perform this type of activity.

An effective way for a translator is to learn the relevant subject area with the simultaneous assimilation of terminology - immediately or sequentially in two languages. This is the first set of tasks in the preparation of a translator. The second set of tasks is a practical training in translation using knowledge and terminology from the relevant subject area.

The tasks of the first complex are solved with the help of a lexical-translational complex of classes, introduction to the subject (in the classroom), tasks for independent study of the subject of the statement. The tasks of the second complex are solved by mastering the following skills: the ability to convey concepts in translation not with the help of terms, but with the help of descriptive translation; the ability to immediately form, if not terms, then such names for concepts, the essence of which would be clear.

The content of the translation course includes both communication required professional knowledge and development of translation skills and abilities. At the same time, the skills and abilities of translation constitute ultimate goal translation course, because they provide practical professional activity of a translator. Translation skills and abilities are created based on the use of specially selected teaching materials. Such materials include translation exercises and training texts.

Exercises are divided into pre-translation and actual translation. Pre-translation exercises are aimed at creating conditions for the successful implementation of the translation process, creating the necessary communicative attitude, checking students' language and background knowledge, showing them how experienced highly qualified translators solve typical translation tasks. Actually translation exercises are divided into: language, operational and communicative.

Conclusion

At present, it has become obvious that the translation activity has undergone a number of quantitative and qualitative changes, which have caused the need for a large number of highly qualified translators, which, in turn, requires improving the quality of their professional training. Today, when the science of translation has made a noticeable step forward, it is no longer possible to teach in the old fashioned way, appealing only to the linguistic intuition of students when substantiating translation decisions. When analyzing and evaluating translations, more weighty, evidence-based arguments are needed. The ability to find such arguments presupposes the existence of a certain "theoretical vision" of translation.

Completing the work, we can come to the conclusion that it is necessary to equip the teacher and student with the latest knowledge in the field of translation theory, about the place of translation in social practice, about the problems of its theory and practice, and create the necessary basis for effective practical mastery of translation. The most important condition for the successful training of future translators is the improvement of the educational process, the development of teaching methods.

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Over the past few years, the translation industry has undergone significant changes associated with the emergence of new technologies. For an industry that is growing at an ever-increasing pace and is experiencing an acute shortage of qualified translators, computer technology to increase the efficiency of translators has become a real panacea. The main technology that needs to be mentioned in this connection is the use of translation memory programs. With help software This class of translators can use previously completed translations to avoid re-translating the same or similar pieces of text.

The work of a translator in the modern world is becoming a market-oriented professional occupation, which requires the application of uniform quality assurance standards to it and the completion of translations in a short time. If several centuries ago a typical translator could sit in his office for days, choosing the right word to translate a poem or church book, then a modern translator works at a computer, translating thousands of words a day, and is forced to translate in a short time, because any delay will mean losses. client.

The first tool that made it possible to speed up the work of a translator was an ordinary typewriter, but a more significant breakthrough was the replacement typewriter on Personal Computer. Translator-critical tools emerged, including electronic dictionaries and glossaries, voice recording software, and, eventually, translation drives (CAT programs). Translators can now rely not only on their memory, but also on the collective experience collected in the translation memory.

With the advent global network The Internet has brought new possibilities for the use of computers. It became possible to communicate with people from other countries in real time. Translators now have the opportunity to create communities, forums, share experiences and get help from colleagues.

Let's try to figure out what tools have helped translators in their work throughout the history of this craft.

First translators

The craft (or art) of the translator is certainly a very ancient occupation. In general, the first translator appeared when two people who did not know each other's language were able to communicate with the help of a third party. Written translation appeared almost simultaneously with the invention of writing. The first serious work of translators was connected with religious texts. For this reason, among the first translators, St. Jerome is most often cited, famous for translating the Bible from Greek and Hebrew into Latin. Saint Jerome was born in 347 on the territory of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina. His translation of the Bible is also called the Vulgate, since it was written not in classical, but in the so-called Vulgar Latin. The Vulgate is still the official text of the Bible in the Roman Catholic Church. St. Jerome began his work in 382 with the revision of the existing at that time Latin translation New Testament. In 390, he reached the Old Testament, written in Hebrew. The work of St. Jerome was completely completed in 405, i.e. took 23 years. In the next 15 years of his life, Saint Jerome was engaged in commenting on the received manuscript, often explaining the translation decisions he had made.

In memory of Saint Jerome, September 30th is the International Day of the Translator. It should be noted that even such a classic translation as the work of St. Jerome is still subject to constant criticism, which once again speaks of the subjective nature of any translation.

The advent of printing in Europe became a prerequisite for the emergence of translations of the Bible into German (Martin Luther), Polish (Jakub Wuek) and English (King James Bible).

First translator tools

For many years the translator's tool was ink, pens and paper. With their help, Saint Jerome translated the Bible. Calligraphy was an important part of the translator's skills. As a result, one or two pages of translation could be obtained per day of work.

Although the invention of the ballpoint pen in the 19th century somewhat simplified the work of a translator, the first revolution is still associated with the invention of the typewriter. A person with good typing skills types much faster than handwriting. It became possible to type text at a speed of 250–300 characters per minute. For reference, the official touch typing record for the Russian keyboard layout belongs to Mikhail Shestov and is 720 characters printed without errors per minute. Despite all the advantages, typewriters have not gained rapid acceptance among translators. Opponents of the idea of using typewriters by translators argued that increasing the speed of typing contradicts the very essence of translation, which is an art and cannot be measured in characters per minute. With the same success, you can use mechanisms to create paintings or musical works.

Until now, many translators do not want to use translation drives, which can significantly increase the speed of their work, because they believe that because of this their work will become less valuable.

The appearance of the typewriter led to the fact that all translators were divided into two schools: those who considered translation an art, and those who considered translation a job. Moreover, both schools included representatives of both the young and the older generation of translators.

The advent of computers

In the modern world, a translator who does not have computer skills is unlikely to be able to find a job. Most translation companies accept translations only in electronic format, which can be easily edited and sent to e-mail. But it was not always so.

Electronic dictionaries and glossaries

There are two main disadvantages when working with information on paper (for example, with dictionaries). First, it takes much more time to search for information. Most translators are familiar with the feeling when intuition suggests a particular word, but a corrosive mind requires checking that this term has the required meaning in the dictionary. Finding the right word in an electronic dictionary (eg www.lingvo.com) is much faster. Secondly, paper dictionaries take up a lot of space and collect dust, which is very fond of microbes and other microorganisms. Electronic dictionaries, like paper dictionaries, need to be bought, but they are still somewhat cheaper.

Computer translation

Computer-assisted translation programs, or CAT-programs (English abbreviation - computer-assisted translation), is a category of software that makes it possible to facilitate the work of a translator through the use of translation drives, or TM (translation memory). Translation memory stores translation decisions made earlier. It should immediately be noted that computer translation and machine translation are not the same thing and, accordingly, the resulting quality is completely different. When using CAT programs, the source document is divided into segments separated by punctuation marks. Each source segment, when translated, is associated with a translation segment. If the translation storage already contains the same or a similar fragment of the source code, the program prompts the translator to compare it with the original. After the translation of the fragment is completed, the original-translation pair is entered into the translation memory. When moving on to the translation of the next segment, the program scans the translation memory again for matches.

The use of CAT programs allows you to speed up the work on the translation due to the fact that the translator does not need to check the translation of terms with the glossary every time. In addition, translation aggregators make it possible to achieve uniformity of terminology within long-term projects, as well as when several translators work together on the same order. If in the first case the CAT-program acts as an external memory of the translator, then in the second case it acts as a dynamic glossary that can be stored on the network and updated in real time.

Often the same term allows for several translations, but multivariance within a single text is unacceptable and leads to confusion. For example, when translating contracts from English into Russian, “Customer” can be translated as “Customer” or “Buyer”, but only one option can be used within one contract. Before the advent of CAT-programs, when performing urgent orders that required several translators to work on the translation of one text, a glossary was compiled. Of course, the probability of error due to the human factor was much higher. It is not uncommon for glossaries to include dozens of terms, and it is not surprising that translators or editors might miss one or two of them. When using translation memories, the coordination of the work of a large number of translators is greatly simplified.

Most CAT tools also allow you to search for the desired word in the translation memory, see the variants of its translation, as well as the context in which it was encountered.

The most well-known CAT tool today is SDL Trados. Unfortunately, the distribution of this program among Russian translators is hindered by its high cost. The Wordfast translation drive is more affordable.

Other programs that make the translator's job easier are voice recognition, text recognition (OCR), and office applications (MS Office and OpenOffice).

Voice recognition programs

Constant work at the computer, a sedentary lifestyle have a negative impact on the health of translators. It's no surprise that software developers are coming up with solutions to reduce the amount of time you spend on your computer. To a certain extent, voice recognition (RSI) and text (OCR) programs can reduce the time spent at the computer. Examples professional programs voice recognition are IBM's ViaVoice and Dragon's NaturallySpeaking. Russian developers are somewhat behind in this direction, but recently worthy samples of Russian speech recognition programs have appeared. Speech recognition programs can be used when preparing transcripts of audio recordings in a foreign language, which will later need to be translated, as well as when dictating the text of the translation. The use of voice recognition programs is limited by the need for their long-term training, as well as high requirements for equipment and the environment (microphone, absence of interference and noise).

Text recognition programs (OCR) have become much more widespread among translators. They are especially useful for a translator when it is necessary to collect a large amount of digital data. The text recognition program scans an image in any bitmap format (JPG, BMP or PDF) and converts it into a text file in .DOC format or any other format the translator wishes. The most famous text recognition program is ABBY Fine Reader. Unfortunately, just like speech recognition programs, OCR is very sensitive to tuning and, if used ineptly, gives very poor results. The formatting of the resulting text document is usually practically unsuitable for making further changes to it. Most translation agencies have a very negative attitude towards translators who use automatic text recognition programs without subsequent manual formatting correction. It is often possible to more or less bring to mind the text of a translation made in a recognized file, only by re-copying it one paragraph at a time into a new document.

Text editors

The most common text editors among translators are Microsoft Word and Open Office. Both programs have many features that most translators don't use. For example, few people know that in these programs you can set keyboard shortcuts to insert frequently occurring phrases. For example, if you are translating the text of some federal law, then when typing fdl, the program will automatically replace the resulting abbreviation with Federal Law. An important function of modern text editors, which allows you to significantly reduce the number of typos in translations, is the function of automatic spelling and punctuation checking.

Internet resources

With the advent of Google and Yandex search engines, the Internet has become an invaluable encyclopedia and a translator's best friend. These systems really open up very broad possibilities for the translator. In a few seconds, you can check in which context this or that combination occurs, causing difficulties in translation. Multilingual tools (primarily Wikipedia) allow you to switch between articles written on the same topic but in different languages. As a result, the translator gets the opportunity to compare the terminology of the original and target languages in one or another narrow subject area. For example, if the translator's native language is not English and he is not sure which wording is better to use (for example, heavy rain or heavy rain), then by setting both options in the Google search bar, you can compare the frequency of each of them by the number of pages found (8.8 million for heavy rain and 41,900 for heavy rain). In order for Google to search for the phrase, and not individual words, they must be enclosed in quotation marks. Of course, one should be very careful when using the Internet as the main source of information for making a decision. The very fact that there were more than forty thousand sites on the web containing non-idiomatic English language expression heavy rain, indicates the unreliability of this source. Fortunately, there are still more literate website authors than illiterate ones, and the above method has been successfully used by the author of this article in his translation activities for several years.

With the spread of the Internet, there are more and more resources that can be accessed through the network. Online versions of many electronic dictionaries are available, including those with the possibility of replenishment by users (for example, www.multitran.ru). The Internet has connected translators living in different countries ah world. Every day there are more and more forums, blogs and resources for translators, where the latter can exchange experiences and help each other. The most famous among such sites in Russia is the "City of Translators", and among the Western ones - Proz.com, KudoZ, Translators "Café and Translators" Base. Some time ago, mailing lists were also popular among translators (for example, Lantra-L and Trad-Prt).

Using communication programs (ICQ, Skype and others), translation companies can engage translators who are native speakers from different countries. Thanks to the Internet, the translation market is becoming truly unified and global. International associations of translators are emerging (for example, the American Translators Association, or ATA for short, founded in 1959 and comprising 10,500 translators from 70 countries). In 2005, the ATA conducted a "translator census" which led to some interesting findings. Thus, 67.1% of the translators who are members of the association are women and only 32.9% are men. 63.6% of translators lived in the US, and 36.4% lived outside of this country. Only 74.6% of translators have higher education. The role of the ATA is that this organization certifies translators.

Appearance computer technology, translation drives, electronic dictionaries, speech and text recognition programs made it possible to speed up and facilitate the work of translators. As a result, there has been a significant increase in turnover translation industry. However, translation memory is not used by all translators.

What is meant by optimizing the work of a translator? This is an increase in efficiency, expressed in a decrease in the time spent on processing a certain amount of text, provided that the quality of the translation either remains the same or improves.

The quality of translation can always be improved by self-improvement, self-learning, but this has little effect on the speed of work. Sometimes it happens that in the process of translation, its speed steadily decreases, the text check is very slow, which indicates fatigue and that the translator has reached the limit of his capabilities. This happens mainly when switching to new topics or when fulfilling an order from an area in which the specialist has little experience to date. Then you have to constantly refer to dictionaries, reference materials and other sources of information. Therefore, in order to increase the efficiency of the translator, optimization is still needed.

As in other areas of activity, in translation the optimization process begins with an analysis of each stage of work and finding the accumulated problems. Solving each of them is an important optimization element and therefore improves efficiency. However, the most efficient way is to automate as many translation steps as possible. No one argues that only a person is able to carry out a truly adequate translation, because we use not only knowledge of the language, but also own experience, understanding the context, etc., but still, the more translators use the opportunities provided by the computer, the faster they complete tasks. Firstly, electronic dictionaries instead of paper dictionaries save time perfectly, especially since you can also learn from dictionary entries useful information. Secondly, text editors are a very convenient way to check the translation for obvious errors. However, automated translation programs have even more advantages.

The most commonly used translation automation software, SDLTrados, has the following main features:

1. The system allows you to instantly translate sentences or expressions that have already been translated by the program and stored in its memory. Often, texts from different orders are identical to each other or very similar, for example, the texts of certain documents, contracts. Trados substitutes the version previously stored in memory into the translation text. Sometimes the program automatically translates up to several pages of source text.

2. Trados makes it easier to collaborate on major projects, because it allows you to create extensive glossaries that can be used by all members of the translation team. This saves time looking for equivalents and explanations of terms.

3. When typing, the system analyzes the first letters and issues possible options words to choose from.

Currently, computer-aided translation programs are widely used among translation companies, and are also used in translation departments in large enterprises. They help to complete tasks in a shorter time, which means more orders and higher profits, which, in turn, proves that translation automation is the right way to optimize it.

Based on materials from the site http://www.langinfo.ru.

When a translator works at home, it is necessary to independently control the quality of translations. This is what allows us to form a circle of regular customers and have a stable flow of orders. Knowing the criteria for a good translator's work will help in this. Let's consider the most important of them.

The success of a translation depends on many factors. The main one is the maximum accuracy of the result in comparison with the original. The resulting text must fully reflect the essence of the original, and the presentation must be reliable.

The second condition is that the translated text must maintain the tone of the original medium. Free thoughts of the translator, inappropriate attempts of "creativity" on his part are unacceptable. This is especially important in cases where the source and received texts are written in languages from different families.

An incorrectly conveyed message of the text can be misinterpreted by representatives of different cultures. As a result, the accuracy of the translation is reduced.

The third point is the transparency of the translation. The translated document should be easy to read by a native speaker and be understandable to him. This is achieved through the translator's experience and deep knowledge of grammar, spelling and style.

It is especially difficult with idioms and various well-established phraseological units that are found in one language, but are not used in another.

To translate such constructions literally means to distort the meaning of the text. However, they should not be omitted either - it is necessary to select similar phrases from the language into which the document is being translated.

The transparency of a translation is easily determined by ear, especially if its subject matter is specific (bright examples are technical, legal, and medical translations). Such a text is replete with "clumsiness" and incomprehensible turns.

At best, this indicates a lack of preparation of the translator. At worst, about machine translation followed by a quick edit, that is, about deliberate poor-quality work.

Finally, the last, but perhaps the most important criterion a good translation is the specialist's knowledge of the topic, his understanding of the specifics of the concepts and processes reflected in the original. First of all, this concerns technical texts, the essence of which can only be understood by a person with experience in this field.

When doing this, this problem can sometimes be solved by attracting an additional specialist (not necessarily a translator) who is well versed in the specific terminology of a certain field of knowledge.

The important thing is that it is not necessary to look for such a specialist in your city. He, for example, can be found via the Internet in a completely different country. But the responsibility for the result in this case lies with the main executor of the order.

Separately, we note that the correspondence between the volume of the original and the translated text is not a criterion for the quality of the translator's work. This is due to the differences and features between different languages. Thus, a Russian text translated from English will almost always be longer than the original, and vice versa.

Moreover, in some cases the translator has to deliberately simplify the meaning of the source code or, on the contrary, refine it. The main thing is that all the previously specified criteria are satisfied.