The nature of management and historical trends in its development. Textbook: The nature of management and the historical background of its development
II. BASIC MANAGEMENT
1. The nature of management and historical trends in its development
Every person knows a lot about the economy because people live in an economic environment.
Economy- laws of housekeeping. In practice, this concept is applied to objects of various levels and scales: an enterprise, an industry, a national economy. The subject of research in economics is, on the one hand, production processes, and, on the other hand, institutional means and mechanisms that facilitate the implementation of these processes.
Production relations in the process of labor are constantly changing and need to be managed, i.e. are the object of management, and economics as a theory is the apparatus for studying and describing this object for the purposes of management.
The task of managing a society in its life support system is extremely complex in its detailed formulation, and even more so in implementation. At all times of its development, society constantly solves this problem. To formulate it, it is necessary to establish: the structure of the management system, the object of management and its connections, the means of influencing it in the management processes. To manage processes in the life support system of society, they are given certain organizational forms.
Own- the leading category of the economy, on which many postulates of relations between people are based in the processes of production, distribution and redistribution of material goods. Evolution public relations shows that in business practice there may be Various types interactions between the subjects of society, which differ from each other in two ways:
- forms of ownership;
- the level of regulatory influence on business entities by public authorities and management.
The processes of establishing the subjects of ownership are characterized by the actions of the governing bodies to identify the subjects of production and economic activity. The subjects of the processes taking place in the economic space of society are state bodies: territorial registration centers, notaries, registry offices, courts, law firms, trust and consulting companies, state statistics bodies, enterprises, citizens.
Control mechanisms implement techniques for giving a quantitative measure to relations in society in the processes of managing them. There are two types of control mechanism:
- spontaneous, formed intuitively, on the initiative basis of the activities of many business entities;
- organized, formed on a logically evidence-based basis, reflecting the empirical knowledge of many business entities.
Management functions are carried out by executors, management professionals. Correct management decisions are the result of their activities and, at the same time, the main tool. Purpose is manifested in the phenomenon of regulation.
The concept of "management", like a number of other concepts in economic theory, did not appear immediately, but was formed over many years with the participation of many authors, and therefore has different interpretations. The most common understanding of management is the science of preparing people for work in the field of managing various objects:
- enterprises and organizations producing various goods, works, services;
- military units and formations;
– development of new technologies and innovations;
- financial transactions.
An integral characteristic of the social association of labor is the level of productivity of social labor. At a certain stage in the development of society, the productivity of social labor begins to be determined by the quality of management of private activities in a public association of labor.
Views on management fundamentally depended on the socio-political system in which they were created and developed. Under the conditions of communist ideology, a theory of management was developed, which was essentially different from the management thought that developed in systems with free market relations. Many prominent scientists and management practitioners of the former Soviet Union and other countries of communist orientation put forward interesting and original ideas related to management. However, being tied to a socio-economic system that did not justify itself historically, these ideas and theoretical developments for the most part turned out to be not accepted by the world management experience and ultimately ended up outside the mainstream of the development of managerial thought.
In conditions market economy the object of management management is the enterprise. Such a clear allocation of the management object is important for the study of management objectives, the definition of management principles and methods, etc.
The management of an enterprise as an integral part of the national economy is reduced to operating with some reproductive resources that provide an effective state economic system, whose elements are objects and subjects of control.
Lecture
By academic discipline
"History of Management"
"Nature of management and historical background of its development"
Introduction
The purpose of studying the course "History of Management" is to learn to understand the past, better navigate the present and anticipate the future development of management.
As a result of studying this course, the manager should know and be able to use:
- methodological problems of the history of production management and management thought;
– patterns of emergence and development of schools and theoretical concepts of management:
– periodization of management history;
– features of various national management models;
- ways and methods of reforming management and transition from administrative-command to market management in Russia;
– prospects for the development of management.
1. The nature of management and the historical background of its development
1.1 Theoretical view on the nature, essence and development of management
Any area of human activity - (medicine, culture, education, technology, etc.) - has its own history. Any activity is born as an urgent need of a person, production and society, then develops, undergoing significant changes, appears as a necessary element of the present and goes into the future in our imagination. This is a very difficult, but very interesting process. Without the past, there is no future; without understanding the past, it is impossible to foresee the future, for which there is a special need today.
Knowledge of the history of management determines many opportunities for its effective improvement. Modern management- this is a set of factors that objectively originated in the past and were previously as if invisible, indistinguishable, but as they developed, they began to play a key role.
Understanding their origins allows us to answer the question of what management methods should be applied at the present time, what is the main and what is secondary.
History is an endless series of not only events, but also successes and failures in the activities of leaders of various sizes. All this has its causes and effects.
1.2 The essence of economic management
Modern management science was formed as a special field of knowledge, took shape in the main conceptual provisions, became the subject of study in higher education.
The development of management is determined by the development of production and the economy as a whole. This is most noticeable in the United States, when at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. U.S. production reached comparatively large scale, the processes of concentration of production became noticeable, competition acquired national significance, new technologies (machine technologies) emerged, further development production required the concentration of financial resources; problems of a social nature arose, class contradictions intensified.
All this testified to the need for management, more precisely, its development and improvement. It was practice that revealed the need to pay great attention to management, it was practice that showed the dependence of success in production on success in management.
This circumstance has great importance in understanding management development trends: practice awakens thought - thought gives rise to science - the development of science requires the study of history - knowledge of the past embodies the projects of the future.
The development of management in Western countries is the most developed part of the history of management. But management has both common features and national characteristics; it is directly related to culture; level of economic development, natural and ethnic features of human existence.
Speaking about the historical trends of management, we mean several factors: first, the objective changes that come in management itself under the influence of various factors in the development of production, society, and man; secondly, the development of managerial thought; thirdly, the general development of science, which determines the methodology for comprehending historical facts at each stage of development; fourthly, the need for knowledge of history; fifthly, the role of history in the socio-political life of the country; sixth, the needs of the future as a factor in structuring historical trends.
It is no coincidence that they say that history is a policy turned to the past.
1.3 Historical background of modern management. Conditions and factors of occurrence
History teaches that the development of management in Russia and in the West took place in radically opposite ways: in Russia it went from top to bottom, and in the West - from bottom to top. In the early 90s. these paths crossed: Russian management is directed sharply downwards, to the origins, from where the ascent of the West began, and Western management is directed to the heights where we were before, but could not equip them.
The regulation of economic processes in Russia has deep historical roots. It was in this direction that the theoretical economic thought developed by A.L. Ordin - Nashchetina (c. 1605–1680) (whose economic views are most clearly formed in the “Decree “memory” of the zemstvo elders of Pskov” compiled by him in 1666 and the “New Trade Charter of 1667”) and I.T. Pososhkov (1652–1726) (1724 "The Book of Poverty and Wealth") - to Academicians A.I. Berg, V.M. Glushkova, L.V. Kintarovich, S.G. Strushilin, V.S. Nemchikov, and Practical activities heads of state from Peter I to V.I. Lenin, I.V. Stalin, N.G. Khrushchev. Many scientists, statesmen, and practitioners have contributed to the improvement of the economic management system: XVIII century: Catherine II, M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Volynsky, V.N. Tatishchev; YES. Golitsyn and A.N. Radishchev, Alexander I, M.M. Speransky, N.S. Mordvinov., Alexander II, S.Yu. Witte, P.A. Stolypin (20–30 years) A.A. Bogdanov, N.I. Bukharin, A.K. Gosev.
Reforms of 1965 and 1974 (L.I. Brezhnev, A.N. Kosygin, V.S. Nemchikov, N.A. Tikhonov).
Before perestroika: Gorbacheva M.S., B.N. Yeltsin, N.I. Ryzhkova and E.T. Gaidar.
The world went the way predicted by N.S. Mordvinov. This was especially evident after the global crisis of the 1920s and 1930s, when, under the influence of the ideas of Keynes (USA) and the experience of the USSR, the regulation of economic processes and foreign economic policy became the official doctrine of the Western powers.
In turn, since 1992, free trade has been revived in Russia, long forgotten in the capitalist countries, i.e. non-interference of the state in economic life and the provision of complete freedom of internal and foreign trade. This led to the fact that: on average, the decline in production amounted to more than 50%, in the food industry - 60%, in mechanical engineering - 70%, in light industry - 90% (50% of workers in the entire industry are traditionally employed in these industries).
In 1996 the share imported goods and products in resources retail trade amounted to 54%, and in Moscow and St. Petersburg - more than 80%. Conducted in 1996 selectively (1996) inspection by the state trade inspectorate “due to a serious danger to the health and life of people” rejected 58% of sausages and meat products, various canned food - 57%, butter - 36%, vegetable oil - 38%. Almost 50% of shoes were rejected and garments. But a selective check is a drop in the ocean against the backdrop of a turbulent flow of marriage arriving on the market of Russia and the CIS countries.
“It can be noted that the macroeconomic situation will continue to deteriorate further until the politicians governing the country develop measures to control prices and stimulate production by influencing both aggregate demand and supply (as is happening now in all developed countries". (see Problems of the theory and practice of management - No. 2, 1996 - p. 32.).
2. Scientific schools of management
2.1 Concept scientific school management. School of Scientific Management
Frederick Winston Taylor (1856-1915) is rightfully considered the founder of modern management. However, if it weren’t for Taylor, Focol, Emerson, or someone else would have become the founder of management, since by the time the “school of scientific management” appeared, the idea scientific organization labor was literally in the air. Taylor gave the concept of "management" certainty, calling it "the organization of production." In 1903, in his work “Cycle Management”, he revealed the main content of his management system, and later in the book “Principles of Scientific Management”, he formulated a number of postulates, which later became known as “Taylorism”.
Taylor proposed a strict scientific system knowledge about the laws of the regional organization of labor, the constituent elements of which are: a mathematical method for calculating the cost, a differential wage system, a method for studying time and movement (chronometry), a method for dividing and rationalizing labor methods, instruction cards and much more, which later became part of the so-called mechanism of scientific management.
Taylorism is based on 4 scientific principles (control rules):
- creation of a scientific foundation that replaces the old, purely practical methods of work; scientific study of each separate species labor activity;
– selection of workers and managers based on scientific criteria, their professional selection and professional training;
- cooperation between the administration and the workers in the practical implementation of the NOT;
- Equal and fair distribution of duties (responsibility) between workers and managers.
Much of what Taylor proposed to use in the labor process had a psychological basis.
And the concept of "human factor" in psychological terms was first introduced into scientific circulation by Taylor - then it was developed by the classics of management F. Gelbert, G. Fayol, E. Mayo and others.
Since Taylor was an industrial engineer, a mechanical approach to control was natural to him.
Taylorism is a classical geometry of work, the most important axioms of which are organizational harmony and economic and psychological expediency. Its main principles are still relevant today.
The concept of scientific management put forward by Taylor was a major turning point, thanks to which management became universally recognized as an independent field of scientific research. Practitioners and scientists have become convinced that the methods and approaches used in science and technology can be effectively used to achieve the goals of the organization.
The Development of Management in the Works of Taylor's Followers
The organizational and technological approach in management was further developed in the works of G.L. Gann, spouses F. and L. Gilbert, G. Emerson, G. Ford and others who developed their original concepts.
Gann is a pioneer in the field of operational management and business scheduling; he developed a whole system of planned schedules (“Gantt Charts”), which, thanks to his high awareness, made it possible to control what was planned and draw up calendar plans for the future.
F. Gilbert - the first to use a camera and a camera to study the movement of workers. Lillian Gilbert was the first to deal with the issues of personnel management, their scientific selection, placement and training. In 1915, she became the first woman in the United States to receive a doctorate in psychology.
In 1912, in Productivity as a Basis for Management and Wage, Harrington Emerson (1853–1931) formed the Twelve Principles of Productivity.
Emerson believed: ... “to work hard means to make maximum efforts; to work productively means to apply the minimum effort to the work.
The founder of the American automotive industry, G. Ford, pointed out: "One of the goals of industry is not only to supply consumers, but also to create them."
In general, the merit of Taylor, Gann, the Gilberts, Ford and others lies in the approval of the following principles of scientific management:
1. Usage scientific analysis to determine the best ways to complete the task;
2. Selection of workers most suitable for certain tasks and their training.
3. Providing employees with the resources required for the effective performance of tasks;
4. Systematic and correct use financial incentives to improve performance.
5. Separation of planning and thinking into a separate process;
6. Approval of management as an independent form of activity, the science of formation of management functions.
2.2 Administrative (classical) school of management (A. Fayol, L. Urvik, D. Mooney)
Fayol created the "theory of administration", which was further developed by Urwik and Mooney.
The goal of the administrative school was to create universal principles of management, following which, according to the beliefs of the founders of the school, the organization will undoubtedly achieve success.
Management principles are the basic rules that determine the construction and operation of the management system; the most important requirements, the observance of which ensures the effectiveness of management.
Fayol formulated 14 principles:
1. Division of labor.
2. Power and responsibility.
3. Discipline.
4. Unity of command.
5. Unity of leadership.
6. Subordination of private interests to the general ones.
7. Reward.
8. Isitrilization.
9. Scalar chain (chain of chiefs).
10. Justice.
11. Stability of the workplace for staff.
12. Corporate spirit.
Fayol singled out 6 groups of operations: technical, commercial, financial, insurance, accounting, administrative - produced at any enterprise and are interdependent.
Fayol divided administrative operations into: planning, organization, motivation, control and coordination, i.e. for basic management functions.
Planning- determines the goals of the activity, the means necessary for this, as well as developing methods that are most effective in specific conditions.
Organization - the formation of the structure of the object and the provision of everything necessary for its normal operation.
Motivation is the activation of employees and encouraging them to work effectively to achieve goals.
Control - quantitative and qualitative assessment and accounting for results.
Coordination is the achievement of consistency in the work of all parts of the system by establishing rational connections (communications) between them.
The management theories of Taylor and Fayol have not only similarities, but also differences. Taylor proposed to establish rational management of enterprises "from below", and Foyle - "from above". Fayol emphasized that there is no contradiction between his theory and Taylor's theory, they simply consider different levels of management: Taylor is a shop management, and he is a higher administrative one.
The main contribution of representatives of the administrative school to the theory of management is that they considered management as a universal process, consisting of several interrelated functions, and outlined the basic principles of management. They formulated a systematized theory of management of the entire organization, highlighting management as a special kind of activity.
2.3 School of Human Relations and Behavioral Sciences. Quantitative approach
In the 30s-50s. of the twentieth century in the West, the "neoclassical" school of management.
The transfer of the center of gravity in management from tasks to relationships between people is the main distinguishing characteristic of the school of human relations. She put forward the requirement "the person is the main object of attention." The founders of this school used the achievements of psychology and sociology in management. The founder of the school was the German psychologist Gulo Münsterberg (1863–1916), who moved to the USA in 1892 and taught at Harvard University. His school trained the world's first industrial psychologists at the request of enterprises and organizations.
Americana Mary Parker Follett (1866–1933), in The New State (1920), put forward the idea of a harmony between labor and capital, which could be achieved with the right motivation and taking into account the interests of all interested parties.
Particular credit for creating the theory and practice of human relations belongs to the psychologist Elton Meilo (1880-1949), head of the industrial research department at Harvard University, who carried out the work that came to be called the Hathorne experiments. Experiments in Hathorne (near Chicago) at the enterprises of the Western Electric Company continued from 1927 to 1939. whole state scientists processed experimental data, and the publication of the results took 10 years.
The Hathorn Experiments laid the foundation for numerous studies of relationships in organizations, taking into account psychological phenomena in groups, identifying motivation and work in interpersonal relationships; stressed the role individual person and providing a psychological impact on a person, optimizing the activities of organizations.
Main literature
1. Gvishiani D.N. Organization and management. Ed. 3rd revision - M.: Publishing house of MSTU im. N.E. Bauman, 1993.
2. History of management: Textbook / Ed. D.V. Gross. - M.: INFRA - M., 1997.
3. Management of the organization. Tutorial. Ed. Rumyantseva Z.P. and others - M .: INFRA - M, 1995.
4. Meskon M.Kh., Albert M., Hedouri F. Fundamentals of management. Per. from English. - M .: "Delo". 1992.
5. Utkin E.A. History of management. - M .: "Tandem", EKMOS, 1997.
6. Fatkhutdinov R.A. Management system. - M .: JSC "Business School" Intel-Synthesis ", 1996.
63. The nature of management and historical trends in its development.
Modern management science was formed as a special field of knowledge, took shape in the main conceptual provisions, became the subject of study in higher education.
The development of management is determined by the development of production and the economy as a whole. This is most noticeable in the United States, when at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. production in the United States reached a relatively large scale, processes of concentration of production became noticeable, competition acquired national significance, new technologies (machine technologies) arose, further development of production required the concentration of financial resources; problems of a social nature arose, class contradictions intensified.
All this testified to the need for management, more precisely, its development and improvement. It was practice that revealed the need to pay great attention to management, it was practice that showed the dependence of success in production on success in management.
This circumstance is of great importance in understanding the trends in the development of management: practice awakens thought, thought gives rise to science, the development of science requires the study of history, knowledge of the past embodies the projects of the future.
The development of management in Western countries is the most developed part of the history of management. But management has both common features and national characteristics; it is directly related to culture; level of economic development, natural and ethnic features of human existence.
Speaking about the historical trends in the development of management, we mean several factors: first, the objective changes that come in management itself under the influence of various factors in the development of production, society, and man; secondly, the development of managerial thought; thirdly, the general development of science, which determines the methodology for comprehending historical facts at each stage of development; fourthly, the need for knowledge of history; fifthly, the role of history in the socio-political life of the country; sixth, the needs of the future as a factor in structuring historical trends.
The nature of modern management is twofold: on the one hand, management is productive labor arising in conditions of combined production with high level specializations workers, ensuring the connection and unity of the entire production process, and on the other hand, management is the activity of supervision and control, which is based on the opposite between hired labor as the direct producer and owner of the means of production. Management work involves the fulfillment of socially necessary tasks for the regulation, organization, coordination and control of socio-economic processes. At the same time, the systems of measures for supervision and control cover both capital and the labor force that sets it in motion. As a function of ownership, management acts as a "command" over labor, because property - the material basis of society - really provides the right to manage socio-economic processes to the class of owners (capital owners).
The concept of "management", like a number of other concepts in economic theory, did not appear immediately, but was formed over many years with the participation of many authors, and therefore has different interpretations. The most common understanding of management is the science of preparing people for work in the field of managing various objects:
- enterprises and organizations producing various goods, works, services;
- military units and formations;
– development of new technologies and innovations;
- financial transactions.
Views on management fundamentally depended on the socio-political system in which they were created and developed. Under the conditions of communist ideology, a theory of management was developed, which was essentially different from the management thought that developed in systems with free market relations.
In a market economy, the object of management management is the enterprise. Such a clear allocation of the management object is important for the study of management objectives, the definition of management principles and methods, etc.
Management of an enterprise as an integral part of the national economy is reduced to operating with some reproductive resources that ensure the effective state of the economic system, the elements of which are objects and subjects of management.
The history of management can be conditionally divided into two periods: 1) the presence of management practices; 2) management as a scientific discipline. In fact, the first period lasted until the beginning of the twentieth century, i.e. governance existed, but its nature and structure were very different from today's governance. It is possible to explain this fact if we turn to organizations that existed in antiquity.
The development of management in scientific and technical disciplines occurs at the beginning of the twentieth century. In 1911, Taylor published the work "Principles of Scientific Management" From that moment on, official sources began to consider management as a science.
The main reasons for the transformation of management into a science: the industrial revolution in England => the emergence of giant monopolies, the work in which required organization and coordination of actions. However, the "Homeland" of management is not England, but the United States.
The United States supports the idea of education for all => there are many highly educated and capable of complex work workers.
There is no state regulation of business in the USA => the size of enterprises is rapidly increasing, and the task of centralized management is set, that is, it was practice that revealed the need to pay more attention to management, showed the dependence of success in production on success in management.
64. Production management and its functions. Production management is a complex system for ensuring the competitiveness of an incoming product in a particular market. In production management, theoretical, methodological and practical issues of organizing production activities are considered. Production management integrates in itself or around itself all types of management: innovation, financial, tax, marketing, etc. The effectiveness of production management is largely determined by the accuracy of forecasts of strategic trends in the development of society, ideology, production and information technologies, forms of integration, organization of production, innovation policy etc. The functions of production management include: strategic marketing, planning, organization of processes, accounting and control, motivation, regulation. If the listed functions are presented as a system of components passing one into another, then at its center there will be a coordination function connected to each function.
Manufacturing is the creation of goods and services.
Production management is an activity that refers to the creation of goods and services by converting inputs (required resources of all kinds) into outputs (finished goods and services).
Production management process is presented as a set of sequential actions of the management apparatus to determine the goals for production units and their actual state based on the processing of relevant information, the formation and completion of economically sound production programs and operational tasks.
The essence of production management expressed in his functions(planning, organization, coordination, motivation and control). At the same time, organizational, administrative, economic and socio-psychological methods, which are implemented in accordance with certain principles, the main of which are: scientific character, purposefulness, consistency, the optimal combination of centralized regulation of a controlled system with its self-regulation, taking into account the personal characteristics of employees and social psychology, ensuring that the rights, duties and responsibilities of all management participants in achieving production goals, ensuring the competitiveness of managerial employees in every possible way .
The main goal of the discipline "Production Management" is to give a fundamental understanding of the principles of the effective functioning of the modern production management system, as well as the development of enterprise management technology.
The object of production management is production and production systems.
under production understand purposeful activity to create something useful - a product, a product, a material, a service. Moreover, the most important element of the production process is the technological process, which determines the production and organizational structure of the enterprise, the qualification composition of employees, and much more.
Manufacturing systems consist of workers, tools and objects of labor, as well as other elements necessary for the functioning of the system when creating products or services. The elements of the production system are workers and material objects - technological processes, raw materials, materials and tools, technological equipment, equipment, etc.
Structure of the production system- this is a set of elements and their stable relationships that ensure the integrity of the system and its identity to itself, that is, the ability to preserve the basic properties of the system during various external and internal changes.
Thus, the production system assumes the presence of an external and internal environment, as well as feedback between them. The components of the external environment that affect the sustainability and efficiency of the enterprise include macro - (international, political, economic, socio-demographic, legal, environmental, cultural spheres) and microenvironment (competitors, consumers, suppliers, legislation on the tax system and foreign economic activity ), infrastructure of the region (banks, insurance and other financial institutions, industry, healthcare, science and education, culture, trade, catering, transport and communications, etc.). The components of the internal environment of the enterprise include the target subsystem (quality of manufactured products, resource saving, sales of goods, labor protection and environment); supporting subsystem (resource, information, legal and methodological support); controlled subsystem (R&D, planning, organizational and technical preparation of production); control subsystem (development of a management decision, operational management of the implementation of decisions, personnel management).
The tasks of the PM are:
1) constant introduction (development) into production of new, more advanced products;
2) systematic reduction of all types of production costs;
3) improving the quality, consumer characteristics while reducing prices for manufactured products;
4) reducing costs in all parts of the production and sales cycle with the constant development of new products, expanding the range of products and changing its range.
65. (see 64) Production management. Its methods and scope. The object of production management is the activity of creating products, performing work and providing services to internal and external consumers. The current level of development of productive forces, characterized by the use of complex and diverse equipment and production technology, large scale production, multi-product cooperation, involves the joint work of a large number of people. Such labor is inconceivable without the organization of labor, which acts as an ordered system of interaction of workers with the means of production and with each other in a single production process. The main principles of the organization of production are: Specialization; Proportionality; Parallelism; Continuity; Straightness; Flexibility; Rhythm. At the level of the enterprise, the organization of labor is a system of rational interaction of workers with the means of production and with each other, based on a certain order of construction and sequence of the labor process, aimed at obtaining high final socio-economic results. Based on the definition of labor organization, it is designed to solve the following tasks: - technical and technological, which express the influence exerted by the organization and labor rationing on improving the structure of an enterprise, specializing in production, choosing the best options for technological processes; - economic, expressing the orientation of the organization of labor to create such a system of interconnection between a person and the means of production and with each other, which ensures maximum labor productivity, minimum cost of manufacturing products, and high profitability of production; - psychophysiological, involving the creation of favorable working conditions in the workplace, ensuring a high and stable performance of a person for a long period of time, maintaining his health; - social, aiming to increase the content and attractiveness of work. All of the above tasks are being solved in a complex, and in conjunction not only with each other, but also with the improvement of technology, technology, organization of production and management. Only such an approach can ensure the maximum efficiency of labor organization, the directions of which, based on the listed groups of tasks, can be formulated as follows: workers; 2. The organization of workplaces involves equipping the means of production, objects of labor, tools, fixtures and fittings, communications, as well as their rational placement on the work site and in working area facilitating the use of rational methods and techniques of labor and, ultimately, the high efficiency of the work of each employee; 3. Maintenance of workplaces as an important element of labor organization essentially involves the search for optimal options for the interaction of main and auxiliary workers, which makes it possible to ensure the uninterrupted supply of workplaces with raw materials, materials, blanks, adjustment and repair services, transport and economic services, etc .; 4. Optimization of the labor process through the introduction of rational methods and methods of labor provides for the construction of any labor process on the basis of methods and methods of labor that ensure maximum savings in working time at the lowest cost of physical energy and the optimal pace of work; 5. Creation of favorable working conditions at workplaces, rationalization of work and rest regimes; 6. Certification and rationalization of workplaces, which are periodic accounting, comprehensive assessment and certification of workplaces for their compliance with modern requirements, and in case of this discrepancy, the development of measures for their rationalization; 7. Labor rationing, which is an activity for managing labor and production, aimed at establishing the necessary costs and results of labor, as well as the correspondence between the number of different groups of personnel and the number of pieces of equipment. Workplace - a spatial zone equipped with technical means in which the labor activity of employees performing work or operations together is carried out. Organization of the workplace - a set of measures to equip the workplace with tools and objects of labor and their placement in a certain order. The goal of rational staffing is to reduce the time required to complete work, eliminate unnecessary movement of employees, provide good working conditions and reduce stress and fatigue of employees, use space as economically as possible and maximize staff productivity. Product quality is a set of properties that determine its suitability to satisfy certain needs in accordance with its purpose. The term "quality" used in international ISO standards has a double meaning - in relation to the product (product quality) and to the quality management system (quality system). The nomenclature of parameters used in assessing competitiveness includes two general groups: quality parameters (technical); economic parameters. The technical group includes the parameters of the need, which characterize the content of this need and the conditions for its satisfaction. These include: destination parameters; ergonomic parameters; aesthetic parameters; normative parameters. The quality system is a set of organizational and technical measures necessary to provide the consumer with guarantees of consistently high product quality and its compliance with the requirements of standards and the terms of the contract. Without a carefully designed and implemented quality system, the successful functioning of any enterprise of any form of ownership is impossible. This is due to the fact that the market and quality are closely related concepts. You can win the consumer only through quality - this is the credo of prosperous companies around the world.
The new concept of management in market conditions is based on the relationship between enterprise management and quality management and sets consumer satisfaction as its main goal. Therefore, the most important problem for quality management in Russia at present is the creation of quality systems at Russian enterprises and organizations in accordance with the requirements of international standards ISO 9000 series and their subsequent certification.
Introduction 3
1. The essence of the nature of management. Basic controls 4
1.1 Development of management history 4
1.2 "Historical reconstruction" procedure 9
2. Pluralistic and monistic approaches to the study of history 12
2.1 The position of the researcher in the analysis of the history of management 12
2.2 Methodological approaches to the study of the history of management 14
Conclusion 18
References 20
Introduction
As soon as human society began to take shape in a more or less structural group, it became necessary to manage this society. In today's examples, we see that the well-being and tranquility in society depends on the competent management of both the whole society, whether it be a country or a state, or a single small social group or organization. Competent and calm management, with well-functioning structural components, is less prone to imbalances and crises.
Therefore, the science of management has recently acquired the highest characteristics of relevance.
Object of study: control system as a science.
Subject of study: the process of functioning of the control system.
The purpose of the study: the study of the essence and function of management and its methods of cognition.
Research objectives:
consider the development of management history;
to analyze the procedure of "historical reconstruction";
show the position of the researcher in the analysis of the history of management;
characterize methodological approaches to the study of the history of management.
Conclusion
results management activities, as a rule, are “not noticeable”, alienated from the subject of management. And only in exceptional cases they receive wide public recognition. In the case of management science, the whole world knows, for example, the results of such theoretical scientists as A.A. Andronov, N. Viner, I.A. Vyshnegradsky, A. Lyapunov, D. Neumann and others. In the case of practical managerial activity, again, the whole world knows the names of such military leaders as A. Macedonian, Napoleon Bonaparte, A. Suvorov, G. Zhukov and others, or politicians - A Lincoln, W. Churchill, F. Roosevelt and others, or managers - A. Sloan, G. Ford, L. Iacocca and others.
Culture and management. The broadest interpretation of culture as the totality of all the achievements (both material and spiritual) of human civilization (see, for example) is much wider and more correct than the understanding of culture as a reflection of the achievements of art used in a number of "culturological" works. Also, one of the narrow meanings of the term "culture" concerns the traditions of the organization of activities (an appropriate example is the culture of the organization, that is, organizational culture - see above).
Each social formation has a common "cultural platform", which is, as it were, a metacultural code for all people in society. Moreover, all organizational and socio-economic systems include both general (universal) and private cultural programs. They serve as a “magnet” that attracts individuals who are quite heterogeneous in their essence by some common interests, traditions, norms and rules, faith and beliefs that are broadcast by formal / informal leaders and supported by the majority of participants in the system. Thus, we can distinguish:
metaculture of the entire social system (society, humanity);
national cultures of social and organizational systems - countries, states;
actually a single cultural program of various organizational and socio-economic systems (corporate, subcultures, including traditions, norms, values);
individual culture.
Bibliography
Akoff R. L. Planning the future of corporations. - M.: Progress, 1985. - 328 p.
Ansoff I. New corporate strategy. - St. Petersburg: Peter Kom, 2012. - 416 p.
Doyle P. Management. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2010. - 560 p.
Cleland D., King V. System analysis and target management. - M.: Soviet radio, 2011.- 280 p.
Meskon M. et al. Fundamentals of management. - M.: DELO, 2012. - 704 p.
Barnard C.I. The Functions of the Executive. /Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA. 1938.
Fayol H. Industrial and General Administration. - Geneva: International Management. Inst., 1930.
Mayo E. The Human Problems of Industrial Civilization. - New York: Macmillan, 1933.
Taylor W.F. Principles of Scientific Management. - New York: Harper & Row, 1911
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The nature of management and historical trends in its development
1. The evolution of management as a scientific discipline
Management has a rich and varied history. It is difficult to find another scientific discipline that would develop on such deep historical foundations. The evolution of management has been studied and interpreted by many scientists who form the core of world economic thought.
Purposeful systematization of managerial ideas started in the 30-40s of the twentieth century. By this period, many independent theories, concepts, approaches and directions related to management and a number of related disciplines had been formed. The need to build a scientific classification of the main evolutionary stages and schools of management has been updated.
The first of the approaches used in the systematization of management is the historical approach, based on the application of the chronological principle in the periodization of the stages in the development of this scientific discipline.
B. Karlof in his work "Business Strategy" (according to) cites materials indicating that the elements of modern management have evolved over millennia (see table 2.1.1).
Table 2.1.1. Timeline of management science
|
Individual or ethnic group |
The main contribution to the development of management |
||
|
5000 BC |
Writing; registration of facts |
||
|
Egyptians |
Recognition of the need for planning, organization and control |
||
|
Egyptians |
Decentralization in the organization of management |
||
|
Hammurabi |
The use of witnesses and written documents for control, the establishment of a minimum wage; recognition of the inadmissibility of shifting responsibility |
||
|
Organization concept, scalar principle |
|||
|
Nebuchadnezzar |
Production control and incentives through wages |
||
|
Formulation of the principle of universality of management |
|||
|
Xenophon |
Recognition of management as a special art form |
||
|
Using job descriptions |
|||
|
Jesus Christ |
Unity of command. Golden Rule. human relations |
||
|
Requirements for a manager |
|||
|
Marshall, Logman |
Recognition and discussion of the relative importance of management |
||
|
Joseph Warton |
Developed an entrepreneurial management course for the college |
||
|
Frederick W. Taylor |
Scientific management; systems approach; personnel management; the need for cooperation between labor and management; functional organization, cost estimation, study of working time, definition of scientific management; emphasis on managerial work, research, standards, planning, control |
||
|
Henri Fayol |
First complete theory of management, functions of management, principles of management, recognition of the need to teach management |
||
|
Alexander G. Church |
Functional management concept |
||
|
Morris L. Cook |
Various uses of management |
||
|
Elton Mayo |
The sociological concept of group aspirations |
||
|
Lindell Urwick |
Bringing together and correlating management principles |
||
|
Norbert Wiener |
Development of systems analysis in information theory |
||
|
Romarie Stewart |
Alternatives and limitations of manager actions in various situations |
||
|
Tom Petere |
Treating consumers as people, and the organization's staff as an important resource for business development |
American scientists G. Kunz and S. O "Donnell made an attempt to systematize the available scientific knowledge. They proposed a number of approaches to the study of management problems:
1. empirical (or based on case studies);
2. in terms of interpersonal relationships;
3. from the standpoint of group behavior;
4. as to the process of functioning of a cooperative social system;
5. how to a sociotechnical system;
6. in terms of decision making;
7. as a process of information exchange, the center of which is the manager;
8. from the standpoint of mathematical methods or "scientific management";
9. operational approach.
Each of these approaches forms a corresponding school.
The empirical approach to management builds on past experience, including both successes and failures, with the aim of using it in similar situations that arise in the future. However, according to the authors, "the likelihood that situations similar to the past will arise in the future is negligible." In addition, "a method that turned out to be "correct" in the past may not correspond at all to a similar situation in the present."
The approach to management from the point of view of interpersonal relations focuses on the human factor. The management process in this case is considered from the position of "human relations", from the position of leadership or from the position of the behavioral sciences. One of the main features emphasized by this school of management is the basic thesis that the people of an organization work together to achieve group goals, and therefore it is necessary to form and effectively use interpersonal relationships.
The approach to management from the standpoint of group behavior is directly related to the approach from the point of view of interpersonal relations. In this regard, they are often combined and considered as one approach.
The directions of research of representatives of this school cover a wide range of issues: "from the study of small groups to the behavioral composition of large groups in any enterprise." An enterprise or organization is considered in this school as a social organism.
The approach to management as a process of functioning of a cooperative system considers relations between people as a cooperative social system. "Spiritual father" of the school social systems Ch. Barnard is considered to have developed the theory of cooperation (cooperation) and the theory of cooperative systems. In the systems he singled out, he considered only social elements and the relationships between them, which he called "organization".
The approach from the position of sociotechnical systems, the founder of which is E.L. Trist considers the organization as two systems: social and technical. These systems are in interaction relationships. This approach takes into account that for the successful operation of the organization, it needs, in addition to labor resources, technique and technology. At the same time, the rational organization of production is the key to success. The interaction of social and technical system as an ideology and basic principle has certainly enriched the theory of management.
The decision-making approach to management is based on the need to choose one decision from several possible (comparable) options. Such a decision is often called optimal, which cannot be recognized as true, because "optimal" (literally translated from optimum) is the best of all possible. Practice cannot consider all possible situations. It is more reasonable to call this variant of the solution rational, since rational is the best of the available ones. This approach often requires the creation of models and the application of economic and mathematical methods. However, decision theory deals not only with the actual decisions, but also studies the organization as a social system.
The approach to management from the standpoint of the information center considers the manager as an information center focused on obtaining information, its storage, processing and distribution. At the same time, the role of communications in the management process and the importance of decision-making are emphasized. Modern information technologies are widely used for decision-making.
The approach to management from the standpoint of mathematical methods, or "scientific management", is directly related to the approach from the standpoint of decision theory. This approach focuses on a model that expresses the interaction of relationships and established goals. Representatives of this school consider management as a system of mathematical models and processes, and specialists in the study and analysis of operations are commonly called "management science specialists."
This approach is subject to serious criticism. In particular, it was emphasized that mathematical methods can provide correct tools that are widely used in management, but it is hardly advisable to consider the mathematical approach as an independent direction.
The operational approach to management is directly related to all other approaches. It aggregates a number of provisions that are most important from the standpoint of management. The operational approach includes the following elements: interpersonal behavior, group behavior, managerial experience, cooperative social systems, sociotechnical systems, rational choice management decisions, communication centers and "management science".
Currently, four major approaches are known, which made it possible to identify four management schools, each of which is based on its positions and views:
· scientific management approach -- school of scientific management;
· administrative approach -- classical (administrative) school in management;
approach from the point of view of human relations and the behavior of people at work - school organizational behavior;
· approach from the point of view of quantitative methods -- school of management science (quantitative).
These schools of management were developed in the first half of the 20th century. And they remain relevant in the modern period.
2. Stages and schools in the history of management
In management theory, there are a number of main schools of scientific organization and management:
- School of Scientific Management,
- classical (administrative) school of management,
- School of psychology and human relations,
· - School of management science (quantitative).
School of Scientific Management
The emergence of modern management science dates back to the beginning of the 20th century. and is associated with the names of Frederick Winslow Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, and Henry Gantt. Key Feature This school is the position that you can manage "scientifically", based on economic, technical and social experiment, as well as on the results of scientific analysis of the phenomena and facts of the management process and their generalization and systemic interpretation.
Frederick Winslow Taylor. UGH. Taylor is the founder of scientific production management. He was the first to apply this approach to a single enterprise.
Taylor called the system he created differently: "piecework system", "task-based worker management system". The term "scientific management" was first proposed in 1910 by L. Brides. After Taylor's death, this name was generally accepted in relation to the concept he formulated.
The main theoretical provisions of the concept of F.U. Taylor are outlined in his work "The Principles of Scientific Management" (1911). Taylor's writings are a generalization of his own practical experience. In 1885, Taylor became a member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, which played a large role in organizing the movement for scientific methods of production management in the United States.
Taylor focused on improving productivity. The practical basis of the concept proposed by him is the need to establish a scientifically substantiated daily task for the worker and methods for its implementation. Taylor believed that managers did not accurately assess the potential of the worker and therefore set production rates approximately. Managers are not interested in increasing the production of workers, overfulfilling the norms, so they cut prices. Taylor suggested that this was the main reason for the unwillingness of workers to increase labor productivity.
Taylor's experiments began in 1888 with an analysis of the work of two loaders of bulk materials, who were promised higher wages. During the experiment, the movements of the arms, legs, and the whole body were studied; the load on the shovel changed, the very shape of the shovel, etc. From these experiments arose the "science of working with a shovel", designed for a physically strong "first-class worker". Taylor divided each work into its constituent elements, and the elements into techniques and movements in order to reduce the time for their implementation, as well as to eliminate unnecessary and unnecessary techniques and movements. In the process of conducting experiments, Taylor measured the execution time of individual elements and operations. He studied various options their implementation and chose the best of them. The value of the norm, or, as Taylor called it, the lesson, was determined for the best workers working with best performance labor. Those workers who could not or did not want to work hard were subject to dismissal. Thus, Taylor focused on the individual qualities of workers. He believed that workers should be supervised at every phase of production.
Much attention in the Taylor system was paid to the normal maintenance of workplaces (tools, fixtures, containers, etc.). The masters were entrusted with the duty of timely provision of jobs with everything necessary for effective work, training of workers, including briefing, issuing tasks a day in advance, etc.
Taylor deduced four principles of the scientific organization of management and argued that their observance would lead to an increase in the well-being of both managers and workers. Workers could count on higher wages, and management staff on higher profits.
The four principles of the scientific organization of management, formulated by Taylor, are as follows.
1. Develop a scientific approach to each element of the work performed individual, replacing the obsolete empirical method.
2. On scientific basis select the most suitable employee, prepare, train him and develop the skills he has acquired. (Before that, the workers themselves chose the types of work and learned them on their own).
3. Work closely with the workers to ensure that all work is carried out in strict accordance with established scientific principles.
4. Distribute tasks and responsibilities between management and workers almost equally. Management staff must perform all types of work for which he is more suitable than workers.
Taylor's followers. Taylor's ideas have been criticized more than once. However, he also had many followers who continued his research and supplemented the concept of scientific management with new methods. The most prominent of them were the spouses Frank (1868-1924) and Lillian (1878-1972) Gilbreth, as well as Henry Gantt (1861-1919). F. and L. Gilbreth studied the structure labor actions and techniques by dividing them into the smallest movements that have a logically complete look. The duration of each such movement was measured by a special device that combined a movie camera and a chronometer. The latter was invented by Frank specifically for solving such problems and could fix time intervals up to 1/2000 second. With the help of freeze-frames, the Gilbreths were able to identify and describe 17 hand movements. Applying their method, the Gilbreths designed many rational labor techniques and actions for different types of work. Yes, in labor admission on laying one brick (Frank was a bricklayer in his youth), they reduced the number of strokes from 18 to 4, thereby increasing the bricklayer's productivity by 50%.
The methodology for studying labor procedures proposed by the Gilbreths, accompanied by a corresponding rationalization of the implementation of these procedures, is still used today. smallest labor movements, which the Gilbreths drew attention to, were called microelements (the Gilbreths called them terblig, which corresponds to their surname, if you read it in reverse direction). Subsequently, powerful systems of microelement rationing of workers' labor were created. In the USA, such a system is called MTM, in Australia - MODAPTS (the basic one in it is the simplest movement of the finger - flexion, the duration of which is expressed in a conventional unit of time called mode). In the second half of the 80s of the XX century. in the Soviet Union, a domestic system of microelement design of labor processes and labor rationing appeared, called BSM (basic system of microelements). The main unit of time in it is 1/10000 minutes. Basic system of microelement time standards: methodological and normative materials / R.P. Miuskova, E.K. Kalinina, Yu.A. Fisyuk and others. M .: Research Institute of Labor, 1982. . BSM can be used at the present time to organize and standardize the work of workers in repetitive operations.
Gantt, in turn, proposed an easy-to-use method for planning a set of interrelated works that must be performed not by one employee, but by a whole team - a team, a section, a workshop. He proceeded from the fact that all works are interconnected, and any one work (called the follow-up) can be started only after the completion of one or more other works (called the predecessor). So, for example, it is possible to pour the foundation of a house only after the formwork has been made (one job), the necessary material has been delivered (another job), etc. The formal representation of a time-ordered set of works is called the Gantt map. In Russia, it is called a line chart.
As an illustration of the managerial activity of F. Taylor, one can recall his experiment with cast-iron ingots. Workers loaded 92-pound cast-iron "pigs" into railroad cars. On average, they shipped 12.5 tons per day. However, Taylor believed that by conducting a scientific analysis of this operation, it is possible to determine one of the most effective method its implementation and, as a result, increase the rate to 47-48 tons per day. After careful scientific analysis of various combinations of procedures, techniques and equipment used, Taylor was able to achieve this level of performance. Taylor selected the most suitable worker for this work, provided him with all necessary tools and equipment, achieved full compliance with the instructions developed by him and took advantage of the method of material incentives, significantly increasing the daily rates: from 1.15 to 1.85 dollars. As a result, the intended goal (48 tons per day) was achieved.
In general, Taylor managed to achieve a steady increase in labor productivity - up to 200% or more.
The requirement for rationalization also extended to the layout of the enterprise and workshops. A scheme was drawn up for the rational placement of equipment and jobs, and selected rational ways movement of materials and semi-finished products within the enterprise and workshops, which made it possible to carry out work with the least time and cost.
The central positions in the Taylor system were occupied by the planning and distribution bureau of the enterprise. They were entrusted with the functions of implementing the interaction of elements of production. The Bureau established methods for manufacturing products, the composition of equipment, tools, fixtures, and control methods. He also developed job descriptions for each performer, from the worker to the administrative staff.
Increased attention in the Taylor system was given to the organization of accounting and reporting at the enterprise. This work was entrusted to a special executor as part of the distribution bureau, who kept daily records on the principles of differentiation: for individual workers, for all parts of the enterprise, for administrative personnel. Accounting results were presented in graphical form. With their help, control over production was carried out according to the main indicators and a set of measures was formed that needed to be taken in case of violation of the established tasks.
Classical (Administrative) School of Management
The classical or, as it is also called, the administrative school of management was formed in the period from 1920 to 1950.
Henri Fayol. The founder of this school is Henri Fayol (1841-1925), a French mining engineer, an outstanding practical manager, who is one of the founders of management theory.
In contrast to the school of scientific management, representatives of the classical school considered the organization as a whole and began to develop approaches to improving management from the standpoint of organizational integrity. The classical school is often referred to as administrative precisely because its representatives held high administrative positions in various organizations. So, Fayol, who is called the father of management, for thirty years (1888-1918) was the manager of the large French mining and metallurgical concern Comambo. When he took over, the concern was on the verge of collapse. By the time A. Fayol retired (1918), the concern had become one of the largest, efficiently operating enterprises, which contributed to strengthening the defense capability of France during the First World War.
Fayol prioritized the management process itself, which he viewed as an administrative function designed to assist administrative staff in achieving the goals of the organization. This point of view is stated, in particular, in the main work of A. Fayol "General and industrial management"Written in 1916.
The conceptual basis of A. Fayol's research distinguishes two organisms in any enterprise: material and social. The first includes labor itself, means of labor and objects of labor in their totality, under the second - the relationship of people in the labor process. These relations became the actual subject of A. Fayol's research. He made attempts to substantiate the necessity and possibility of creating a special science of people management, as part of the general doctrine of enterprise management.
Administration, according to A. Fayol, is the basis of management, which includes six main groups of management operations (according to):
1. technical and technological (production, manufacturing, processing);
2. commercial (purchase, sale, exchange);
3. financial (raising capital and managing it effectively);
4. security (protection of property and individuals);
5. accounting (inventory, balance sheets, production costs, statistics);
6. administrative (foresight, organization, command, coordination and control).
A. Fayol identified the management of the listed operations as general management, and focused on administrative operations, the essence of which is personnel management. Fayol put forward recommendations on the use of sanctions as the main method of managerial influence.
A. Fayol considered technical, commercial, financial and other operations only as an object of influence of an administrative function that has an integrating basis.
The theory of management according to A. Fayol (in his terminology - administration) is a set of rules, techniques, principles aimed at improving efficiency entrepreneurial activity, rational use of enterprise resources in their entirety.
Fayol's 14 management principles (that is, fundamental or universal rules) have enriched world science. At the same time, Fayol's main contribution to management theory is that he presented management as a universal process consisting of five functions, and formulated the principles of effective management. In particular, he argued that all the activities of an enterprise aimed at increasing efficiency and success can be divided into the following six groups or areas **) Pugh D.S, Hickson D.J. Researchers on Organizations: A Reader. A summary of the works of recognized authorities in the theory and practice of management. M. : MTsDO LINK, 1996. S. 104.) :
1. technical activity, or production itself (technology, processing of objects of labor);
2. commercial activity(purchase of raw materials, sale of products);
3. financial activities(investment, optimization of capital investments);
4. security (protection of property and workers);
5. reporting activity(inventory, cost accounting, statistics, balance sheet);
6. management activities (planning, organization, order, coordination, control, which, in fact, are management functions).
In any business, regardless of its scale, according to A. Fayol, these six areas (groups) of activity are always present. Not the last place among them is occupied by the sixth group, that is, the management itself. It was for her that he formulated his principles and functions.
A. Faiol's management principles are as follows.
1. Division of labor. This principle implies the expansion of specialization, which inevitably leads to an increase in the qualifications of performers, and, consequently, to an increase in production volumes and product quality. Specialization allows you to reduce the number of goals to which the attention and efforts of employees should be directed.
2. Power and responsibility. This principle assumes that the right to give orders and instructions, to grant and transfer powers, while at the same time assuming responsibility in accordance with the law.
3. Discipline. Following the agreements reached between the enterprise and employees means having discipline. Discipline is provided by many factors, including fair sanctions.
4. Unity of command. This principle assumes that the executor, in order to avoid conflicts in the execution of orders, must obey only one boss.
5. Unity of direction of action. It is necessary that people employed in the same areas of activity obey the same goals and act according to the same plans.
6. Subordination of individual interests to the common ones. The manager must ensure that the interests of employees are subordinated to the interests of the enterprise. The prevalence of the goals of subordinates over the goals of the enterprise is unacceptable.
7. Staff remuneration. Fair pay for work is an important incentive to work (although A. Fayol emphasized that there is no perfect incentive system).
8. Centralization and decentralization. This principle is to ensure an acceptable proportion between centralization and decentralization, which may vary depending on specific conditions. Of particular importance is the determination of the measure that can provide the best results.
9. Scalar chain. It represents a hierarchical dependence, and hence the subordination of the managers of the enterprise at various levels (from top to bottom). At the same time, the necessary acceptability between the number of management levels and the number of subordinates to one leader must be observed.
10. Order. This refers to the observance of both material and social order. The first of them minimizes the loss of working time and ensures the rational use of materials. Second -- effective organization labor.
11. Justice. The principle of fairness should accompany the relationship between managers and employees.
12. Job stability For personnel.The success of any activity is due to the presence of stable management personnel. A mediocre but constantly working leader is preferable to a talented manager who does not value his workplace.
13. Initiative. This principle means that all employees of the organization should be given opportunities to be active, to be able to search, and to be independent.
14. corporate spirit. Harmonious relations of the organization's personnel form a favorable corporate environment. A. Fayol wrote: "Real talent is needed to coordinate efforts, encourage enthusiasm, use the capabilities of each employee and reward each according to his merits without forcing possible envy and violation of harmonious relations."
Max Weber. Max Weber was a famous German sociologist. Most of his works, written at the beginning of the 19th century, were devoted to the development of the theory of power structures and described organizational activity on the basis of power relations. He developed a type of ideal organization which he called the bureaucracy. The ideal organization he envisioned was characterized by a clear division of labor, a clearly defined hierarchy, specific rules and regulations, and impersonal control through a clear definition of official duties. Weber recognized that in actual practice such an "ideal bureaucracy" does not exist and that it is rather an electoral model of the real world. His theory about work and how work can be done in large teams is based on this model. This theory determined the structural construction of many modern large organizations. The ideal bureaucracy according to Weber has the following characteristics:
1. Division of labor. Work tasks are broken down into simple, routine and well-defined tasks.
2. Hierarchy of power. Departments and positions are combined into a hierarchical structure in which the work of each employee holding a lower position is managed and controlled by a higher employee.
3. Formal selection. All members of the organization must be selected on the basis of their qualifications, the level of which is determined by an examination or in accordance with their experience and training or on the basis of an examination.
4. Formal rules and procedures. To ensure uniformity and regulate the actions of employees, managers must strictly adhere to formal organizational rules.
5. Impartiality. The rules must be followed by everyone, and accordingly the methods of control should be applied to all employees equally, without any personal preferences.
6. Focus on career. Managers are officials(rather than the owners of the business units they manage). They receive a fixed salary and move up the corporate ladder within their organization. Therefore, it is extremely important to create conditions for career growth for the manager.
According to Weber's definition, the basic concepts of bureaucracy largely coincide with the concepts of the scientific organization of management. Both of these concepts emphasize rationality, predictability, impartiality, technical competence, and authoritarianism. Weber's works, in contrast to Taylor's, were not of such an obvious practical nature, however, the "ideal type" of organization developed by him is still suitable today for describing many really functioning organizations.
School of Human Relations
In the 20-30s. In the 20th century, the school of human relations was born. Its feature is the focus on the key role of the person. The emergence of the doctrine of human relations is usually associated with the names of such scientists as E. Mayo, M. Follet, F. Roezlisberger, who are known for their research in the sociology of industrial relations. In particular, Roezlisberger considered the enterprise as complete system in which it is necessary to achieve a balance between the technical and social aspects and direct the efforts of employees to cooperate with each other, ensuring the achievement of a common goal.
The greatest contribution to the study of problems of organizational behavior was made by the Hawthorne studies, conducted in American company Western Electric under the leadership of the already well-known management specialist Elton Mayo (1880--1949). They proved that social and psychological factors have a much greater impact on the growth of labor productivity than the physical conditions of work (however, only if the organization of labor can be characterized as rational and efficient).
Mayo formulated the following theses:
1. Individuals have unique needs, needs, goals, motives.
2. Positive motivation requires workers to be treated as individuals. Even high wage does not always lead to an increase in labor productivity and the achievement of the goals desired by managers. At the same time, people are very responsive to the favorable moral and psychological climate and working conditions created by the leadership.
3. Worker's personal and family problems can adversely affect work performance.
4. The exchange of information between people is important, and timely, complete and reliable information is one of the decisive factors in management.
5. Major problems cannot be simple.
Mary Parker Follett(1868-1933) - the first woman in US history - a doctor of sociology. She was a supporter of the replacement of bureaucratic institutions interconnected groups where individuals would independently analyze problems, make decisions and put them into practice, because the formalization and rationalization of processes, from her point of view, contradict the idea of activating creativity. In her opinion, managers should not manipulate subordinates, which causes a backlash, but train them.
M. Follett argued that the hierarchical division between leaders and subordinates is artificial, and power should be based on superiority in knowledge. She was one of the first to formulate the thesis about the necessity and possibility of workers' participation in management; substantiated the position on the constructive role of the conflict and proposed three ways to resolve it: domination, compromise, integration. Follett is known as an adherent of the principle of situational leadership.
The School of Human Relations focused not only on the individual, but also on the team. However, the collective seemed to be a relatively "faceless mass", a homogeneous formation, and this, in the conditions of complication and individualization of production activity, was clearly not enough. That is why from the second half of the 30s. in addition to the school of human relations, behavioral concepts began to take shape, focusing on the disclosure and development of the individual capabilities and abilities of each employee individually, as well as their use in accordance with the interests of the organization.
The behavioral approach, embedded in the theory of human behavior, was aimed at overcoming the shortcomings of the concept of human relations. Behaviorism focused on human behavior (and not on his consciousness and will). The role of the main regulator of human behavior was given to profit. The emergence of behaviorism is associated with the name of C. Barnard. Subsequently, this direction developed in the works of A. Maslow, R. Liketra, D. McGregor, F. Herzberg.
Early theories of motivation included Maslow's hierarchy of needs; theory X And theory Y, developed by Douglas McGregor, as well as the motivational-hygienic theory of Frederick Herzberg. Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory identifies five basic needs that people seek to satisfy in a specific hierarchical order: the physiological need, the need for security, the social need, the need for respect, and the need for self-actualization. Theory X is based on a negative assessment of human nature, while the theory Y mainly declares the positive qualities of a person. According to the motivational-hygienic theory of Herzberg, not all factors of work can serve as motivation for workers and employees. hygiene factors simply reduce dissatisfaction, while motivational factors ensure job satisfaction.
Early behavioral studies of leadership focused on the study of the behavioral styles exhibited by leaders. In the course of research at the University of Iowa, the main leadership styles were identified: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire. In addition, the following two characteristics of the leader's behavior were singled out - the degree of initial structuring and attentiveness, and two characteristics of the leader's behavior, called "personnel orientation" and "production orientation", were identified. Scientists R. Blake and J. Mouton took advantage of these characteristics and developed the so-called two-dimensional managerial grid, which clearly displays the effectiveness of different leadership styles.
School of Management Science (quantitative approach)
The formation of the school of management science is associated with the development of mathematics, statistics, engineering sciences and other related areas of knowledge. The most famous representatives of this school are R. Ackoff, L. Bertalanffy, S. Vir, A. Goldberger, D. Fosrester, R. Luce, L. Klein.
The School of Management Science was formed in the early 1950s. 20th century and retains its importance to this day. The school of management science distinguishes between two main areas:
1. Consideration of production as a social system using systemic, process and situational approaches.
2. Study of management problems based on system analysis and the use of a cybernetic approach, including the use of mathematical methods and electronic computers.
After setting the problem, specialists develop a model of the situation. After the model is created, the variables are assigned quantitative values. This allows you to objectively compare and describe each variable and the relationships between them. The most important stimulus to the expansion of the use of quantitative methods in management was the introduction of computers. The computer allowed operations researchers to design mathematical models of increasing complexity that come closest to reality and are therefore more accurate.
The influence of management science (or the quantitative approach) was not as significant as the influence of the behavioral approach, which is quite understandable. It is obvious that many more managers deal daily with problems of human relations, human behavior, than with the problems that are the subject of operations research. In addition, until the 60s. only a minority of executive practitioners were educated to understand and apply complex quantitative methods. However, the situation has now fundamentally changed. Business schools are gaining popularity as they offer training programs in quantitative methods and the application of computer technology.
3 . Management approaches: process, system, situational
In the school of management science, which forms the basis of modern management, in addition to the direction that reflects the quantitative, cybernetic approaches, there is a direction in which production as a social system is considered from the standpoint of systemic, process and situational approaches.
Systems approach allows you to consider the organization as a system consisting of a certain number of interconnected elements.
Systems theory has a rich history. Initially, it was used in the exact sciences and in technology. With regard to management, systems theory began to be applied in the late 50s, which was a significant success of the school of management science.
The systems approach is based on the general theory of systems, which is considered to be the founder of Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1901-1971).
The starting point from the standpoint of a systematic approach is the concept of a goal. The presence of a specific goal is the first and most important sign of an organization. On this basis, this system differs from other systems surrounding it. The task of management in these conditions is to provide a comprehensive process for achieving the goals facing the system.
The system approach assumes that each of the elements that make up the system has its own specific goals. However, the essence of a systematic approach is to ensure an increase in the efficiency of the organization as a whole.
Features of the system approach are as follows:
a clear definition of goals and the establishment of their hierarchy;
· Achievement of the best results at the lowest cost, using the tools of comparative analysis and selection of ways to achieve the goals;
· a broad comprehensive assessment of all possible results of activities using a quantitative interpretation of goals, determining methods and means to achieve them.
A system is a kind of integrity, consisting of interdependent parts, each of which contributes to the characteristics of the whole. Violation of any part of the system leads to disruption of the entire system. In management, all organizations are treated as systems.
Systems are divided into two major types: open and closed. Closed systems are relatively independent of the environment, while an open system is influenced by environmental factors. The theory of social systems considers the organization as an open system, as a multifactorial and multipurpose formation.
The main elements of the system are: goals, objectives, structure, equipment and technology, people. A person in the social system is considered as a socially oriented and directed being with numerous needs that affect the production sphere and, in turn, experience the opposite effect on its part.
Between all elements of the system there are bilateral and multilateral connections that cause a change in the behavior of people in the organization - organizational system aimed at achieving the set goals. Links in the system are carried out through the main connecting processes, such as communications, balance and management decision-making. Communication ensures the exchange of information in an organization. Equilibrium ensures that the organization adapts to constantly changing conditions, as well as achieving correspondence between the needs and attitudes of a person with the requirements of the organization. The decision - making process regulates and manages the system .
From the standpoint of management, the concept of a subsystem matters. Organizations are made up of several interdependent subsystems. Thus, a production organization has social and technical subsystems. Subsystems, in turn, can be composed of smaller subsystems. Since they are all in an interconnected relationship, the malfunctioning of even one subsystem (for example, a separate department or employee) affects the system as a whole.
Social systems theory emphasizes that the needs of the individual and the needs of the organization do not coincide. This theory is characterized by a different view of the conflict between an individual and an organization than previous schools. In previous schools, this conflict was seen as a deviation from the normal course of events, which can be overcome with the help of financial incentives or methods of labor harmonization. In social systems theory, conflict is viewed as a normal state of functioning of an organization. The task of management in these conditions is not to eliminate the conflict, but to find the best way to overcome it.
The theory of social systems pays great attention to the formalization of procedures, the strengthening of labor discipline, and the regulation of routine processes.
It examines in detail the problem of centralization and decentralization of management. Management in an organization is considered centralized if top management retains most of the functions and powers, and decentralized if it distributes functions and powers between lower levels of management. The ratio of the degree of centralization and decentralization of management in an organization determines the level of delegation by top management to lower levels of management of their decision-making powers in such critical areas as innovation, pricing, marketing, and competitiveness management. Top management includes among its prerogatives and responsibilities the decision of such issues as determining the strategy of the organization, its overall goals and objectives, financial policy, as well as controls the costs and strategic plans.
Decentralized governance structures have many supporters. The management practices of many organizations also testify to the effectiveness of decentralization. The experience of creating a decentralized organization is widely known on the example of General Motors under the leadership of Alfred P. Sloan in the 20s. last century. Later, Peter Drucker became interested in this problem, who studied the experience of decentralization in a number of companies, such as General Motors, Sire, Dupont, General Electric, etc., and came to the conclusion that "the basic rule for any organization is to involve the smallest number of levels of control and create the shortest chain of commands.
Decentralization has a number of undoubted advantages. It provides broad powers to lower levels of management, which increases the objectivity of decision-making, reduces the time for their formation, reduces requests for office work, frees managers from the need to work with large amounts of information. However, one cannot ignore the significant drawbacks of decentralization. Employees of the lower levels often do not understand, and sometimes do not know the goals, objectives and strategy of the organization, which reduces the degree of validity of decisions made. Decentralization can weaken control over the activities of grass-roots units, which will affect the efficiency of the entire organization.
Decentralization cannot be considered in isolation from centralization, which contributes to an increase in the level of validity of decisions made by the top management of the organization, which has sufficient experience and knowledge in the field of management and, in particular, on decision-making problems.
Process approach as the concept of managerial thought was first proposed by the classical (administrative) school of management, which formulated and described the content of management functions as independent of each other. The process approach from the standpoint of the school of management science considers management functions as interrelated. M.X. Mescon gives the following definition of the process approach: "The process approach to management is an approach ... based on the concept that management is a continuous series of interrelated actions or functions" (according to).
The author of the concept of the process approach is A. Fayol, who believed that "to manage means to predict and plan, organize, dispose, coordinate and control."
Subsequently, different authors proposed different classifications managerial functions. So, Meskon believes that "the management process consists of four interrelated functions: planning, organization, motivation and control." These functions are united by the connecting processes of communication and decision making. Management (leadership) is seen as independent activity aimed at achieving the goals of the organization. The process approach is based on the premise that management functions are interdependent.
situational approach, developed in the late 60s. XX century, is directly related to the system and process approaches and expands the scope of their application in practice. The situational approach is sometimes referred to as situational thinking about organizational problems and their solutions.
The first work in the field of the situational approach is considered to be a study by English scientists T. Burns and G. Stalker, which they conducted at 20 enterprises producing different kinds products. The work of these enterprises was considered in relation to stable and changing conditions, which led to the conclusion that each type of conditions is characterized by its own organizational structure management: for stable conditions - "mechanical" structure, and for changing conditions - "organic" structure. The "mechanical" structure is based on a deep division of labor and wide application of regulatory documents. For the "organic" structure is characterized by a change in goals, objectives and other things, depending on the changing situation.
Basic in the situational approach is the definition of the concept of situation. A situation refers to a specific set of circumstances, variables that affect an organization at a particular time. Consideration of a specific situation allows the manager to choose best ways and methods of achieving the goals of the organization that are appropriate for this particular situation.
The effectiveness of the organization depends on a large number of variables in which internal and external components are distinguished.
The main internal variables of the organization include situational factors operating within the organization. Among them are goals, objectives, structure, equipment and technology, people. Internal variables are formed by the impact of managerial decisions made by the people who created the organization.
However, in modern conditions, taking into account only internal factors is completely insufficient. Really functioning organizations are significantly influenced by environmental factors (stimulating or limiting), which, in turn, have a great impact on the internal variables of the organization.
The need to take into account the influence of the external environment on the activities of the organization is reflected in scientific studies that have appeared since the 50s. last century. The situational approach expanded the view of the organization as a management system that is affected by both internal and external factors. external factors. The need to take into account changes in the external environment is especially relevant at the present time. The effectiveness of the organization, and sometimes the possibility of its existence, depends on how the organization is able to adapt to changes in the environment, the dynamics of which inevitably increases.
management management evolution
Literature
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2. Belyaev V.I. Management: textbook.- M.: KNORUS, 2009.
3. Kabushkin N.I. Fundamentals of Management. - Minsk: BSEU, 1996.
4. Kaznachevskaya G.B. Management: textbook / Ed. 11th - Rostov n / a: "Phoenix", 2010.
5. Lyubanova T.P., Myasoedova L.V., Oleinikova Yu.A. Strategic planning at the enterprise: Proc. allowance for universities. - 2nd ed., revised. And extra. Series "Economics and Management". - M.: ICC "Mart"; Rostov n / a: Publishing Center "Mart", 2005.
6. Lukicheva L.I. Organization management: textbook. A manual for university students studying in the specialty "Management org." / Under. Ed. A.P. Aniskina.- 3rd ed., Ster.- M.: Omega-L, 2007.
7. Meskon M.Kh., Albert M., Hedouri F. Fundamentals of management. M. : Delo, 1992.
8. Fundamentals of management: textbook. allowance / Ed. Doctor of Economics, prof. IN AND. Queen.- M.: Master, 2008.
9. Popov A.V. Theory and organization of American management. M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1991.
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