2 Russian scientific schools of public administration theory. Evolution and scientific schools of public administration theory
For the first time, the term "public administration" was used in the program of the US Republican Party. The evolution of the science of public administration allows us to distinguish three stages: 1. 80s XIX century - 1920; 2. 1920 - 1950; 3. 1950 - present.
The founders of the theory of public administration are considered to be W. Wilson, F. Goodnow and M. Weber. In France, A. Esmen, L. Dugi, A. Michel, M. Oriou dealt with the theory of public administration. However, the system of state administration was considered by them only to the extent that it helped to clarify the principles and forms of organizing the functioning of the political institutions of the state as a whole. In the UK teaching and learning theoretical issues public administration began at the end of the nineteenth century. at the London School of Economics and Political Science, later at Oxford, Cambridge, and other universities. A significant contribution to the development of the theory was made by E. Barker, D. Cole, G. Lasky, Ch. Manning and others. The main attention in their works is paid to the forms and features of the organization of state-legal institutions, their organization, the mechanisms of their functioning and interaction. After World War 1, public administration underwent changes. The Americans made especially great strides during this period. This is due, firstly, to the fact that public administration, as a type of activity, experienced a period of rapid development, especially during the Great Depression of the 1930s. Secondly, educational institutions already in this period enjoyed great freedom in compiling curricula and selection of teachers. Thirdly, the Americans believed that the science of public administration and the science of managing private enterprises could and should be brought closer together.
The most famous trends in the theory of public administration during this period were the “classical school” (L. White, L. Urvik, D. Mooney, T. Woolsey) and the “school of human relations” (sometimes called neoclassical) (M. Follet, A. .Maslow, E. Mayo, W. Murphy), which arose in response to the shortcomings of the classical school.
The current stage in the development of the science of public administration (50 years - up to the present) begins with a rethinking of the achievements of previous development. During this period, there was a desire in science to create universal theories. The main attention was paid to the study of interdependencies, interrelations of roles in public administration. There were such directions as behaviorism, structural functionalism, systemic and situational approach to scientific research of the theory and practice of public administration. Representatives of the behavioral direction G. Simon, D. McGregor, F. Herzberg, D. Thompson, D. Easton, argued that public administration is based on the relationship between the administration and bodies formed on the basis of the people's will, so the focus of their attention was the study behavior of individuals as voters.
During this period, structural-functional, systemic and situational approaches were widely used in the study of public administration problems (R. Merton, D. Easton, G. Almond, T. Parsons, V. Thompson). Their representatives focused on the factors aimed at the integration and stability of the existing public administration system. Currently systems approach is one of the most influential trends in the theory of public administration. The logical continuation of systems theory was the situational approach, which, using the possibilities of direct application of science to specific situations and conditions, made an important contribution to the development of public administration.
The development of a categorical apparatus and methodology of public administration in the materials of international meetings of UN experts is also underway. Today it can be stated that the theory of public administration has international recognition and the official status of an independent scientific discipline.
1. System of public administration
1. The content of the concept of "public administration". Public administration and management
Management is a function of biological, social, technical, organizational systems, which ensures the preservation of their structure, supports a certain mode of activity. There are 3 classes of control: inanimate nature(management in technical system); in organisms (upr-ie in biological systems); in society (social management). Management is always impact. Man is the source of control. The control action is a practical activity, specific work, the performance of an administrative-legal impact aimed at the implementation of laws, the creation of legal acts. The control action contains: the moment of goal-setting (choosing the goal of the ideal state of resources, etc.); organizational moment (the number of people to achieve a specific goal) .; regulation of the participants in the process. State. Management is a kind of social upr-tion. The essence of social management lies in the purposeful organizing influence on a group of people to provide mothers and the spirit of their living conditions. State administration is a purposeful influence of state bodies, its institutions and employees on various areas life of society-va behavior of individuals and groups. The basis of state administration is the possession of state power.
Public administration properties:
1. In public administration, its control actions are based on state power, supported and provided by it.
2. It extends to the whole of society, to every sphere of activity of society, even beyond its limits, to other societies of people within the framework of the international policy pursued by the state.
3. Objectively, systematically, organized.
The subject of GU is not the apparatus, but the state, as a political and legal organization of society, the totality of all citizens and other inhabitants of the country.
Management is the professional management of an enterprise under conditions market relations in any area of economic activity, aimed at making a profit through the rational use of resources.
2. Development of the science of public administration. The main scientific schools studying public administration
The scientific school of management is represented by F.U. Taylor (1856-1915). In 1903 he published the book Workshop Management. In 1911 the book "Principles and Methods of Scientific Management". The main provisions of the theory are: - the creation of a scientific foundation in the sciences of management; selection of workers based on scientific criteria, their training and education; cooperation between the administration and workers in the practical implementation of the scientifically developed organization of labor; equal distribution of labor and responsibility between the administration and employees.
The classical school of management is represented by Henri Fayol (1841-1925), at the basis of this scientific direction, the scientific development of the principles of organizing administrative activities was carried out. He considered management as a universal process consisting of several interrelated functions. Henry Ford, Weber.
School of Human Relations Mary Parquet Follett (1868-1933) and Elton Mayo.
Remis Likert School of Behavioral Sciences. Hertzberg, McGregor. The objects of these studies were social interaction, motivation to work, the nature of power and authority, organizational structure, leadership. The main criterion is to increase the efficiency of the organization's activities by increasing the efficiency of human resources.
Quantitative Management School Russell Acuff. The main direction of this school is the desire to introduce the methods and apparatus of the exact sciences into science. It arose with the advent of cybernetics.
The following approaches to the development of the science of public administration are distinguished: process- is considered as a set of processes for the implementation of the main functions: planning, organization, coordination, regulation, control; systemic approach - any subjects and objects of control are considered as a system; situational approach- this is a probabilistic approach, depending on chances, circumstances and situations.
Case stage method a kind of situational approach, an American method aimed at developing the depth and speed of thinking when making managerial decisions.
Modern paradigms and concepts:
1) strengthening statehood and maintaining the unity of the Russian Federation; 2) strengthening of federal state power: the vertical of executive state power; 3) increasing the role and effectiveness of the activities of the Government of the Russian Federation in state regulation of the economy, taxation and other areas; 4) improvement of public administration in connection with the reform of municipal self-government; 5) raising the standard of living of the population of the Russian Federation as the main objective implementation of state policy; 6) fight against corruption in public authorities and administrations; 7) state administration by creating a capable union of the CIS countries.
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Public administration is a relatively young science - she is a little over 100 years old. The subject of science changed frequently during this time. IN modern form this science has existed for the last 30 - 40 years, in Russia - less than 15 years.
Certain approaches to the management of the state apparatus arise along with the appearance of the first state formations.
In ancient China, Egypt, Greece, Rome, there was an interesting and original experience of organizing the state, understanding its place and role in the regulation of social processes. However, almost all concepts were associated not so much with administrative as with political management, where the focus of research was on the activities of political institutions.
In essence, the first scientific direction in administrative science in Austria and Germany in the 17th century, where the course of "cameral" or "cameralistic" sciences was taught at universities. Kameralien in translation
from German means "the science of public administration", and the word itself
comes from the late Latin camera, since under the absolutist regime in Prussia, starting from the 18th century, management was usually carried out in a collegiate form. This form of government balanced the centralization of power.
The most famous among cameral scientists is Lorenz von Stein (1815-1890). A native of Denmark, Stein taught at the University of Kiel. His main work "Die Verwaltungslohre" ("Theory of Public Administration" in 8 volumes) was published in Stuttgart in 1866-1884. Stein and his followers obviously did not limit themselves to the theory of state administration; on the basis of their proposals, important transformations were carried out in the organization of ministries that replaced collegiate institutions, in the recruitment and training of employees and in the organization of the administrative apparatus. The aim of the science of public administration, according to Stein, is "the realization of the principles social management in the highest sense of the word."
From the end of the 19th century cameral sciences in the countries where they originated entered a time of relative decline, as they were partly absorbed political science during its renaissance.
At the end of the XVIII century. and almost throughout the 19th century, there were many interesting works dedicated to management issues. The loudest name of this era is Alexandre Francois Vivienne. His "Essays on Administration" (first edition - 1845, second - 1850) represent the first serious work in the field of public administration science, built according to a single plan and on its own conceptual basis. The practical results of Vivien's work were especially fruitful, despite the political instability of the time. Specialized ministries were created, a law on civil servants and the procedure for their recruitment were developed, the apparatus was deconcentrated, and the School of Administration was opened in 1848.
With the advent of the works of V. Wilson, F. Goodnow, M. Weber, one can speak of the beginning of a new stage in the development of the theory of administrative and public administration as an independent scientific direction. In their work, two fundamental ideas were expressed and developed. scientific theory administrative and public administration: 1) in order to reform the administrative apparatus, it is necessary to know it well, and therefore, to study it from scientific positions; 2) the apparatus of administrative-public administration should be separated from the sphere of politics. Chronological framework this stage can be conditionally determined from the 80s. 19th century to 1920
At the end of the XIX century. the German scientist M. Weber was one of the first to single out the theory of public administration as an independent field of study - he developed the concept of the state as the main subject: politics and power; bureaucracy; state apparatus.
According to Weber, the state, as well as the political unions that precede it, is the domination of people over people with the help of legitimate violence as a means. He identified 3 types internal causes, by virtue of which some people are subordinate to others:
Ø charismatic domination (charisma is power built on the personal especially outstanding qualities of a person, for example, the power of a demagogue, the leader of the crowd);
Ø dominance by virtue of "legality" (by virtue of belief in the obligatory nature of legal government and the business competence of leaders).
According to Weber, in its evolution the state has gone through (or is going through) all 3 types of power systems - first, power rests on traditions, then on the charisma of leaders, and ultimately on laws recognized by society.
Weber also first proposed theory of bureaucracy. He recognized bureaucracy as the purest type of legal domination. Bureaucracy is defined as a type of organization characterized by:
v distribution of labor;
v specialization;
v a clear management hierarchy;
v rules and standards;
v uniform principles of recruitment and promotion, based on the competence of the employee.
In Weber's idea, bureaucracy was identified with rationalization, that is, with the ordering, systematization and measurability of social processes, and in particular management.
Since 1890, the study of public administration has become part of the curriculum at leading universities in the United States and Western Europe. Research Centers state activities and institutions began to appear in the USA and Europe in the 20-30s. 20th century
The next stage in the development of the theory of public administration lasted from 1920 to 1950. The Americans achieved especially great success in these years, which can be explained by a number of reasons. In contrast to European countries, in the United States, higher education institutions already at that time enjoyed great freedom in the design of curricula and the choice of teachers. They had the opportunity to experiment, widely introduce new courses, one of which was the course on the theory of administrative-public administration, which contributed to the development and dissemination of new science.
The study of public administration in Great Britain and the United States began at the end of the 19th century. at the London School, and continued at Oxford, Cambridge, especially Harvard and other universities. The greatest contribution was made by American scientists E. Barker, D. Cole, G. Lasky, C. Manning and others. Professor W. Wilson, the future president of the United States, proclaimed the idea of independence and irremovability of the bureaucracy. He said that during the presidential elections, the change of political leadership should not be reflected in the administrative apparatus. He proposed to use in the system of public administration the most effective methods organization and management. At present, this idea of V. Wilson (separation of politics and administrative apparatus) has become one of the most important doctrines of the organization of public administration in Great Britain, the United States, as well as many other countries of the world.
A revolutionary contribution to the development of the science of public administration was made in the 1930s. J. M. Keynes. The key idea of J. Keynes is that the state should actively intervene in the development of society and influence the development of the economy. The scientist talked about the shortcomings market economy caused by economic crises and unemployment and proposed an anti-crisis program. In the 1940-19 60s. concept was created economic system, which would be regulated by both the market and the state (for example, through the redistribution of income in favor of the poor, tax policy, social benefits, etc.).
French researchers have made a significant contribution to the theory of public administration. A. Esmen in the book "Elements of constitutional law" analyzed the basic principles of public administration in France. Other French scientists - L . Dugi, A. Michel, M. Oriou- developed an institutional approach to the problems of public administration. A feature of these authors is the consideration of public administration not in itself, but only to the extent that it helped the study of state-political institutions.
France has developed dirigisme theory for the restoration of the country's economy after the war, the reconstruction and modernization of industries, the creation of new industries. To implement this theory, it was announced principle of state policy selectivity for the restoration and development of the most privileged branches of industry, such as heavy industry, chemistry, mechanical engineering, and oil refining. At the same time, the goals of promoting French goods on the world market were pursued.
In the post-war era, 2 areas of science appear in the USA and Western Europe administration:
v "classical school";
v "school of human relations".
Representatives of the "classical school" are L. White, F. Taylor, A. Fayol, D. Mooney and others. They argued that public administration should focus on achieving the set goals with the help of minimal costs with maximum efficiency. To do this, they proposed specialization, centralization, unity of orders, etc.
A great merit in this direction belongs to the French scientist A. Fayol, who put forward a theory about the basic principles of public administration. These principles include:
v division of labor;
v hierarchy;
v unity of command;
v discipline;
v responsibility, etc.
Despite the obviousness of these principles, initially they were used mainly in the management of corporations. Largely thanks to the works of Fayol and his associates, the principles corporate governance gradually began to be used in the administrative.
Generally strengths The classical approach lies in the scientific understanding of all managerial relations in the system of administrative and public administration, in increasing labor productivity through operational management. However, in cases where the human factor has a decisive influence on the effectiveness of management, the use of this approach is clearly not enough.
Another influential trend in the theory of public administration was the "school of human relations". It arose in the 1930s, when psychology was still in its infancy. The human relations movement emerged largely in response to the failure of the classical school to recognize the human factor as a key element in organizational effectiveness. The most famous scientists of this direction were M. Follet, A. Maslow, E. Mayo, W. Murphy. In their research, they paid attention to the analysis psychological factors that cause satisfaction of workers with their work, since in a number of experiments it was possible to achieve an increase in labor productivity by improving the psychological climate and strengthening motivation.
Their main ideas:
v ensuring the stability of the administrative apparatus;
v creation of the most understandable, simple and legal incentives to encourage the good work of officials, their promotion;
v recognition of the bureaucracy as a special respected stratum of society;
v purposeful special training of managerial personnel, creation of a system that would nominate the best;
Further research showed, however, that a good relationship between employees do not automatically lead to an increase in the productivity of administrative organizations and that the motivation that orients employees to achieve high results is more important than simple job satisfaction. As part of the human relations movement, various motivational models have been developed that are used in the theory of public administration.
The modern stage in the development of the theory of administrative-public administration began in the 1950s. and continues to this day. The most influential directions of the modern period can be considered behavioral, systemic and situational.
The development of sciences such as psychology and sociology, and the improvement of research methods after the Second World War, made the study of behavior in the workplace to a large extent strictly scientific. Among the largest figures of the 50-60s. G. Simon, V. Thompson, D. Easton should be mentioned. It was they who began to develop a new approach to public administration - behavioral. The originality of their work lies in the fact that the authors sought to explain the actual functioning administrative services through the analysis of the behavior of individuals and groups working in them.
The school of behavioral sciences has moved away somewhat from the school of human relations, which focused on methods for establishing interpersonal relationships. The main goal of this school, in the most general terms, was to increase the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of its human resources.
From the beginning of the 60s. in public administration, a systematic approach is rapidly becoming popular, which in to no small extent contributed to the work of D. Easton, G. Almond, T, Parsons. The application of systems theory to public administration has greatly facilitated the task for managers to see the entire organization in the unity of its constituent parts, which are inextricably linked with outside world. This approach also helped to integrate the contributions of earlier schools that at various times dominated the theory and practice of public administration.
main idea systems approach consists in recognizing the interconnections and interdependence of elements, subsystems and the entire system of public administration with external environment, i.e. with society as a whole. This makes it possible to consider the relationship in the system of administrative-public administration and between the system and society as a whole. This approach means that the strategy of public administration cannot be the object of accurate forecasting and planning, since society is constantly evolving and changing. However, this approach focuses on developing strategic management, establishing the general goals and methods of behavior of administrative and public administration.
Today, the systematic approach is one of the most influential areas both in the theory of public administration and in scientific management in general.
Analysis of the main variables that affect the functions of public administration, the effectiveness of administrative structures is the main achievement situational approach which became a logical continuation of systems theory. It originated in the early 1970s. and made an important contribution to the development of public administration, using the possibilities of direct application of science to specific situations and conditions. The most famous theories developed in line with the situational approach are the concept of "soft thinking" and "organizational cybernetics".
Supporters of the situational approach to public administration argue that optimal structures do not exist. The central idea of the situational approach is the analysis of the situation, i.e., a specific set of circumstances that strongly affect a given administrative organization at a given specific time. Since the focus is always on new situation, within the framework of this approach, "situational thinking" acquires special significance. Using this approach, managers can better understand which techniques will be most helpful in achieving the goals of the organization in a particular situation.
The United Nations plays a huge role in the popularization and dissemination of the science of public administration. Since 1967, under the auspices of the UN, international meetings of experts on problems of administrative and state activity have been regularly held.
Today we can say that the theory of public administration has international recognition and the official status of an independent scientific discipline.
Unfortunately, in Russia the science of public administration has received official recognition quite recently. During the period of the dominance of the Marxist-Leninist ideology, state administration was considered from the point of view of the "leading and guiding role of the party." The most important elements, such as goal-setting, decision-making, development and evaluation of programs and plans for social development, were excluded from the competence of the state administration. The tasks of state administration essentially boiled down to ensuring the implementation of party decisions taken outside state structures. State administration covered only executive and managerial activities; its meaning was reduced to a clear formula "command - execution". Critical remarks, alternative solutions, any creative moments in the activities of the state administration were not allowed.
That is why during the years of domination of the party nomenclature, the science of public administration was simply not needed. It was regarded as "bourgeois", obviously false.
Therefore, it is so important today to explore and summarize the experience of the development of science in the field of public administration. There is an international conceptual apparatus, materials of UN experts on the organization of state activity, which can and should be used.
At present, several historical schools and directions are distinguished in the theory of public administration. Leading among them are American, English, French and German.
American school has a general empirical (i.e., experimental) orientation of its research, many of its prominent representatives were not only theorists, but also practitioners. In the 1920s and 1930s, representatives of the “school of human relations” movement tried to explain the functioning of administrative services through an analysis of the behavior of individuals and groups working in them. The most famous scientists of this direction in the USA in the 20-50s were Mary Parker Follet, E Mayo, A. Maslow.
A. Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs, according to which the motives of people's actions are mainly not economic needs (as the "classics" believed), but social, selfish ones, which allow realizing creative possibilities that can only be partially and indirectly satisfied with the help of money. Based on these findings, A. Maslow recommended using human relations management techniques, including creating a favorable psychological climate in the team, consulting with employees and providing them with more opportunities to realize their creative potential at work.
In the 1950s, a behavioral approach emerged in the United States, based on the desire to reveal the possibilities of a person in management process. As part of the approach, McGregor's X and Y theory has been developed. Theory X states that the average person dislikes work and avoids work whenever possible. Theory Y states that it is as natural for a person to expend moral and physical strength on work as it is to rest or play. This means that a person can be stimulated to work if he is given the opportunity to fully open up, take responsibility, and feel his importance for the organization. McGregor worked on Theory Z, in which he tried to combine the needs and aspirations of the corporation and the individual.
At an English school economists considered public administration as a sphere of rational activity of people. The English political scientist B. Barry developed the concept of the "economic type" of state power, exercised through threats and promises. B. Barry considers power relations in society in terms of gains and losses. He believes that power relations take place only when one side benefits more from maintaining them than the other, having the ability to achieve obedience at the last cost of minimal losses. The English philosopher M. Oakeshott developed two concepts of public administration in the 1950s and 1960s: target and civil. In his opinion, these types in their pure form are not found anywhere, since they are ideal theoretical constructions. M. Oakeshott proposes the idea of targeted public administration, where the value of a person is determined by his contribution to the “common cause”, which means the subordination of individuality to corporatism. Recently, new approaches and directions have appeared in the English school. According to P. Chekland, the only way to study integrity is to look at it from as many points of view as possible.
At the French school state Henri Fayol is considered a classic of management; his “theory of administration” is set out in the book “General and industrial management". A. Fayol gave a classic definition scientific management: “To manage means to foresee, organize, dispose, coordinate and control; to foresee, that is, to take into account the future and develop a program of action; organize, that is, build a double - material and social - organism of the institution; dispose, that is, force the staff to work properly; to coordinate, that is, to connect, unite, harmonize all actions and all efforts; to control, that is, to take care that everything is done according to the established rules and given orders. ” A. Fayol formulated 14 general principles management. These are the division of labor, power, discipline, unity of order, unity of leadership, subordination of private interests to common ones, remuneration of personnel, centralization, hierarchy, order, justice, constancy of personnel, initiative, unity of personnel. The rules formulated by Fayol were generally accepted for several decades. Alain, in his work “The Elements of the Doctrine of the Radicals,” gives an analysis of the system of administrative and public administration in France. Alain emphasizes that in the modern state, it is not politicians who have real power, but high-ranking officials from the administrative apparatus.
german school public administration is the most influential among European schools. V. Weber believed that those who govern are entrusted with the task of creating an administrative elite, which must be legitimized (recognized) by the people, public opinion. Erhard's concept is about raising social role public administration. It proclaimed the subordination of all groups of the population to the common good, the strengthening of the role of the government, the reconciliation of all classes with the existing social order. In the theory of public administration, the theory of social conflict developed by R. Dahrendorf is widely used. He proposed ways to regulate conflicts at various levels of government. methods and methods of prevention conflict situations, Stages of the course of the conflict, management of conflict processes. These are, in general, the main achievements of the German school of public administration.
Most modern researchers believe that it was with the advent of the works of V. Wilson, F. Goodnow, M. Weber that we can talk about the beginning of the first stage in the development of the theory of public administration as an independent scientific direction.
The chronological framework of this stage can be conditionally determined from 1880 to 1920.
Since 1900, the study of public administration has become part of the curriculum at leading universities in the United States and Western Europe. In 1916, Robert Brookings founded the first Institute of Government Research in Washington. The goal of this research organization was to develop a systematic analytical approach to government activities. Similar research centers and institutions began to appear in Europe in the 1920s and 1930s.
The second stage in the development of the theory of public administration lasted from 1920 to the 1950s. The Americans made especially great strides in these years, which can be explained by a number of reasons. In contrast to European countries, in the United States, higher education institutions already at that time enjoyed great freedom in compiling curricula and choosing teachers. They had the opportunity to experiment, widely introduce new courses, one of which was the course on the theory of administrative and public administration, which contributed to the development and dissemination of new science.
On the contrary, in Europe (especially in France, Great Britain) the system of education in those years was excessively centralized, uniformity was the rule. The French political scientist J. Steitzel writes: “The development of a branch of science is, first of all, a social process; this development requires a certain preparedness of certain strata of the intelligentsia, overcoming the opposition that arises due to the simple existence of other, already formed industries, with which the newborn may begin to compete in the future.
There was another favorable factor that influenced the intensive development of the theory of public administration in the United States. Already in those years, the Americans believed that the science of public administration and the science of managing private enterprises could and should be brought closer together. Courses in administrative organization, personnel management, budgetary technology, human relations, organization theory were taught in many US educational institutions both for those who were preparing themselves for public service and for those who were to fill in the future the staff of business administration of private business. And since the teaching of these disciplines had such a wide audience, a large number of professors, textbooks, research work. All this contributed to the development of the theory of public administration.
There was another factor of the same plan. Americans have always emphasized the practical value of public administration research; their scientific developments contained practical recommendations, proposed sound reform projects. Such a utilitarian approach to the study of public administration made it possible to find public and private sources of funding for scientific work.
In the 1920-1950s. The most famous trends in the theory of public administration were the classical school and the school of human relations. Prominent representatives of the "classics" are A. Fayol, L. White, L. Urwick, D. Mooney, T. Woolsey.
The goal of the classical school was to develop the leading principles for the organization of professional public administration. Almost all the "classics" proceeded from the idea that following these principles would lead to the success of public administration in different countries. Adherents of the classical school did not care much about social aspects state activities. They sought to look at the organization of management from a broad perspective, tried to define General characteristics and patterns of state organization.
At the same time, they quite successfully used the theory of factors or scientific management, borrowed from the organization of management in business. This theory was developed by F. Taylor, G. Emerson and G. Ford, who considered management as a mechanism that operates as a result of a combination of a number of factors with which you can achieve certain goals with maximum efficiency with minimal resources. All these ideas were used by the "classics" in the study of public administration.
The French scientist A. Fayol is the most significant figure in the classical school of management of this period. His theory of administration is set forth in the book General and Industrial Administration, published in 1916. Fayol headed the Center for Administrative Studies he created in Paris. He argued that the principles of management he formulated are universal and applicable almost everywhere: in the economy, in government services and institutions, in the army and navy.
Fayol gave a classic definition of scientific management: “To manage is to foresee, organize, dispose, coordinate and control; to foresee, that is, to take into account the future and develop a program of action; organize, i.e., build a double - material and social - body of the institution; dispose, i.e., force the staff to work properly; to coordinate, that is, to link, unite, harmonize all actions and all efforts; to control, i.e., to take care that everything is done according to the established rules and given orders.
Fayol formulated fourteen general principles of management, which are included in the golden fund of science:
1) division of labor (allows you to reduce the number of objects to which attention and action should be directed, which helps to increase the quantity and quality of production while spending the same effort);
2) power (the right to give orders and the force that compels them to obey. Power is unthinkable without responsibility, that is, without a sanction - a reward or punishment - accompanying its action. Responsibility is the crown of power, its natural consequence, its necessary appendage);
3) unity of command, (an employee can give two orders regarding any action, only one boss);
4) unity of leadership, (one manager and one program for a set of operations pursuing the same goal);
5) subordination of private interests to the general ones (in an organization, the interests of an employee or a group of employees should not be placed above the interests of the enterprise; the interests of the state should be higher than the interests of a citizen or a group of citizens);
6) discipline (obedience, diligence, activity, demeanor, external signs of respect, shown in accordance with the agreement established between the enterprise and its employees);
7) staff remuneration (should be fair and, if possible, satisfy the staff and the enterprise, the employer and the employee; encourage diligence, compensating for useful effort);
8) centralization, (should be accepted or rejected depending on the tendencies of the management and on the circumstances; it comes down to finding the degree of centralization that is most favorable for the enterprise);
9) hierarchy, (row leadership positions, starting from the highest and ending with the lowest, the path along which, passing through all the steps, papers follow, coming from the highest authority or addressed to it);
10) order, ( certain place for each person and each person in his place);
11) justice (in order to encourage personnel to perform their duties with full zeal and devotion, one must treat him favorably; justice is the result of a combination of benevolence with justice);
12) the constancy of the staff, (staff turnover is both a cause and a consequence of the poor state of affairs);
13) initiative, (freedom to propose and implement plans);
14) the unity of the staff, (the strength of the enterprise is to use the abilities of everyone, to reward the merits of everyone, without violating the harmony of relations).
The principles of management developed by the classical school affect two main aspects. One of them is the substantiation of a rational system of public administration, the second concerns the construction of the structure of the organization. The most important postulates of classical theory can be summarized as follows: science instead of traditional skills, harmony instead of contradictions, cooperation instead of individual work, maximum productivity in every workplace.
Within the framework of the classical school, the public administration system appears as a hierarchical organization of a linear-functional type regulated from top to bottom with a clear definition of the function of each job category. It should be emphasized that such a model is quite effective in a stable social environment and similar managerial tasks and situations. It still finds its application at various levels of government.
In general, the strengths of the classical approach lie in the scientific understanding of all managerial relations in the public administration system, in increasing labor productivity through operational management. However, in cases where the human factor has a decisive influence on the effectiveness of management, the use of this approach is clearly not enough.
Another influential trend in the theory of public administration was the school of human relations. It arose in the 1930s, when psychology was still in its infancy. The human relations movement emerged largely in response to the failure of the classical school to recognize the human factor as a key element in organizational effectiveness. And because it arose as a reaction to the shortcomings of the classical approach, the school of human relations is sometimes called neoclassical.
Further research has shown, however, that good employee relations do not automatically increase the productivity of administrative organizations and that the motivation that orients employees to achieve high results is more important than simple job satisfaction. And within the human relations movement, various motivational models have been developed that are used in public administration theory.
Of particular importance are studies describing actual behavior individuals and groups in the process of developing and adopting government decisions. In a relationship practical advice The human relations movement assumes that any normative theory of decision has the prospect of success only when it is based on the real facts of the behavior of members of the organization in the decision-making process. At the same time, it is not efficiency as such that is taken as the criterion of expediency, but efficiency compared with the psychological limitations that determine the scope practical application theoretical recommendations for improving management. It is recommended to use basic human relations management techniques, including more effective actions of line managers, consultations with front-line employees and giving them more opportunities to communicate at work.
In the field of political management during this period, Keynesian ideas were the most popular. The famous English economist J. M. Keynes in the book “ General theory employment, interest and money” (1936) proposed his concept of state regulation of the economy. basis public policy, according to Keynesianism, should be the fight against economic recessions and unemployment. In essence, this was the first serious model of anti-crisis state policy.
In general, the Keynesian model of public administration is based on the following principles:
1) the state must implement a set of measures to regulate the economy in order to overcome the negative consequences of market relations;
2) preventing social explosions, the state redistributes income in favor of the poor through progressive taxation, development free system education and health;
3) anti-crisis regulation is reduced to stimulating investment during an economic downturn by increasing government spending on purchases, goods and services in order to compensate for the missing private demand and by influencing the bank interest rate, which should not be too high during a downturn;
4) the possibility of allowing a budget deficit and moderate inflation and by issuing additional money into circulation.
The ideas of Keynesianism are still quite popular today and are used in state regulation of a market economy.
The third stage in the development of the theory of public administration began in the 1950s. and continued until the end of the 20th century. The most influential directions of this period can be considered behavioral, systemic and situational approaches.
The school of behavioral sciences has moved away somewhat from the school of human relations, which focused on methods for establishing interpersonal relationships. The new approach is characterized by a desire to help civil servants to a greater extent understand their own capabilities in government structures based on the application of the concepts of behavioral sciences. The main goal of this school in the most general terms was to increase the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of its human resources.
As part of the behavioral approach, scientists have explored various aspects of social interaction, motivation, the nature of power and authority in public administration. The behavioral approach was especially popular in the 1960s. Like earlier schools, this approach advocated a "single best way" to solve managerial problems. Its main postulate is that correct application behavioral science will help improve the efficiency of both the individual employee and the public administration system as a whole.
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Most sources on the theory of public administration offer the following classification of scientific schools (listed in alphabetical order):
American;
British;
German;
French.
American School of Government is one of the most advanced areas of administrative thought.
The American school is characterized by a very wide range of management concepts and has experienced a serious interdisciplinary influence of researchers.
At the same time, generalization allows us to identify a number of the most significant features inherent in the American school of public administration:
Considering the sphere of public administration as a scientific discipline (L.White);
Participation in the development of the theory of public administration, not only theorists, but also practitioners (V. Wilson);
The study of psychological and motivational factors that take place in the process of public administration (A. Maslow);
A pragmatic approach, expressed in maximizing efficiency in minimum cost resources (F.Taylor);
Synchronization of administrative and budget processes(A. Shik);
Formation of cooperation relations between different levels of government within the framework of the federal structure of the United States of America (M.Grodtsins);
Search for optimal forms local government and development of the theory of decentralization (G. Kaufman);
Convergence of public and private management (G. Allison).
I would like to dwell in more detail on the last characteristic, since I find it very relevant in the light of the upcoming reform of the system public service in the Republic of Kazakhstan.
It should be noted that the idea of introducing business sector mechanisms in public administration has been in the air for more than one year. However, so far this is perceived as revolutionary both on the part of the authorities and on the part of the people. Meanwhile, there is an increase in expert discussions on the need to consider the state as large corporation, introducing the principles of corporate governance into the practice of public service, strengthening the service and marketing orientation in the activities of the state apparatus.
In this regard, it should be noted that modern theory There are three levels of business process:
Strategic business processes reflecting management processes, decision making, strategy development and general management;
Operational business processes that reflect the main core activities of the organization;
Supporting business processes reflecting general support services such as accounting, legal service, frames, etc.
Why don't we define the categories of civil servants according to such a scientifically based principle? Process approach has already proven its worth and effectiveness in a more dynamic business environment.
British School of Government significantly enriched theoretical basis management science.
A generalization of its main stages of development allows us to identify a number of the most significant features inherent in the British school of public administration:
Institutional approach (I.Berlin);
A sociological approach, expressed in focusing on the issues of interaction between power and society, relations of domination and subordination (E. Birch);
Responsibility in public administration to public opinion and government to parliament (E. Birch);
The economic approach, expressed in the consideration of public administration as a sphere of rational activity of people; dichotomy "win - loss" (B. Barry);
Concepts of civil and targeted public administration (M. Oakeshott);
Consideration management activities as a permanent process of cognition (P. Checkland);
Cybernetic approach, which is expressed in the consideration of public administration as a balancing system that is able to respond to changes environment and correspond to its complexity (S. Bier).
German School of Public Administration had a powerful influence on the development of the theory of public administration through the promotion of fundamental philosophical concepts.
A generalization of its main provisions allows us to highlight a number of the most significant features inherent in the German school of public administration:
Consideration of public administration as the embodiment of "eternal" values and the sphere of realization of freedom (E. Forsthoff);
The basis of the subject of the theory of public administration is human nature (H. Kuhn);
The state apparatus was formed by stabilizing the order and rules, here, we can note the separation of the neutral administrative apparatus from the political forces (A. Gehlen);
Ideal public administration is characterized by: rigid bureaucratic principles, aristocracy and elitism of civil servants, as well as democratic legitimization of power (M. Weber);
Public administration is primarily aimed at state regulation economy, all population groups are subject to the common good and support the existing social order (L. Erhard);
Structural-functional approach, expressed in the proposal of continuous analysis specific functions management structures with the help of a specific simplification of reality (N. Luhmann);
Conflictological approach, expressed in the consideration of public administration as a process of distribution of limited social benefits between influence groups whose interests contradict each other (R. Dahrendorf).
French School of Public Administration was under the influence of the institutional direction.
A generalization of its main concepts allows us to highlight a number of the most significant features inherent in the French school of public administration:
The state is considered as an institution in which power is embodied (M. Duverger);
Search for a connection between the effectiveness of public administration and the development of decentralization, giving the opposition certain rights, subject to the inviolability of state institutions (P. Avril);
Outsourcing - in order to improve the efficiency of public administration, certain specific functions can be transferred to more competent bodies in the "third chamber" of parliament (M. Poniatkovsky);
Development and implementation of scientific principles of management organization (A. Fayol).
In general, the scientific schools of public administration discussed above had the greatest impact on the development of modern administrative science.
The theory and practice of public administration in these states took shape under the influence of national characteristics development political systems, economic structure and cultural traditions.
At the present stage, Kazakhstan is on the verge of another round of administrative reform, so it is extremely important for us to rethink the accumulated international experience and adopt all the best from the best practices of public administration.
At present, several historical schools and directions are distinguished in the theory of public administration. Leading among them are American, English, French and German.
American school has a general empirical (i.e., experimental) orientation of its research, many of its prominent representatives were not only theorists, but also practitioners. In the 1920s and 1930s, representatives of the “school of human relations” movement tried to explain the functioning of administrative services through an analysis of the behavior of individuals and groups working in them. The most famous scientists of this direction in the USA in the 20-50s were Mary Parker Follet, E Mayo, A. Maslow.
A. Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs, according to which the motives of people's actions are mainly not economic needs (as the "classics" believed), but social, selfish, allowing to realize creative possibilities that can only be partially and indirectly satisfied with the help of money. Based on these findings, A. Maslow recommended using human relations management techniques, including creating a favorable psychological climate in the team, consulting with employees and providing them with more opportunities to realize their creative potential at work.
In the 1950s, a behavioral approach emerged in the United States, based on the desire to reveal the capabilities of a person in the management process. As part of the approach, McGregor's X and Y theory has been developed. Theory X states that the average person dislikes work and avoids work whenever possible. Theory Y states that it is as natural for a person to expend moral and physical strength on work as it is to rest or play. This means that a person can be stimulated to work if he is given the opportunity to fully open up, take responsibility, and feel his importance for the organization. McGregor worked on Theory Z, in which he tried to combine the needs and aspirations of the corporation and the individual.
At an English school economists considered public administration as a sphere of rational activity of people. The English political scientist B. Barry developed the concept of the "economic type" of state power, exercised through threats and promises. B. Barry considers power relations in society in terms of gains and losses. He believes that power relations take place only when one side benefits more from maintaining them than the other, having the ability to achieve obedience at the last cost of minimal losses. The English philosopher M. Oakeshott developed two concepts of public administration in the 1950s and 1960s: target and civil. In his opinion, these types in their pure form are not found anywhere, since they are ideal theoretical constructions. M. Oakeshott proposes the idea of targeted public administration, where the value of a person is determined by his contribution to the "common cause", which means the subordination of individuality to corporatism. Recently, new approaches and directions have appeared in the English school. According to P. Chekland, the only way to study integrity is to look at it from as many points of view as possible.
At the French school state Henri Fayol is considered a classic of management; his “theory of administration” is set out in the book “General and Industrial Management”. A. Fayol gave a classic definition of scientific management: “To manage means to foresee, organize, dispose, coordinate and control; to foresee, that is, to take into account the future and develop a program of action; organize, that is, build a double - material and social - organism of the institution; dispose, that is, force the staff to work properly; to coordinate, that is, to connect, unite, harmonize all actions and all efforts; to control, that is, to take care that everything is done according to the established rules and given orders. A. Fayol formulated 14 general principles of management. These are the division of labor, power, discipline, unity of order, unity of leadership, subordination of private interests to common ones, remuneration of personnel, centralization, hierarchy, order, justice, constancy of personnel, initiative, unity of personnel. The rules formulated by Fayol were generally accepted for several decades. Alain in his work "Elements of the Doctrine of the Radicals" gives an analysis of the system of administrative and public administration in France. Alain emphasizes that in the modern state, it is not politicians who have real power, but high-ranking officials from the administrative apparatus.
german school public administration is the most influential among European schools. V. Weber believed that those who govern are entrusted with the task of creating an administrative elite, which must be legitimized (recognized) by the people, public opinion. Erhard's concept is associated with an increase in the social role of public administration. It proclaimed the subordination of all groups of the population to the common good, the strengthening of the role of the government, the reconciliation of all classes with the existing social order. In the theory of public administration, the theory of social conflict developed by R. Dahrendorf is widely used. He proposed ways to regulate conflicts at various levels of government. methods and techniques for the prevention of conflict situations, stages of the course of the conflict, management of conflict processes. These are, in general, the main achievements of the German school of public administration.
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