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Social aspects of labor. Subject area of sociology of work

Labor is an expedient activity of people aimed at creating material and cultural values. Labor is the basis and an indispensable condition for the life of people. By influencing the natural environment, changing and adapting it to their needs, people not only ensure their existence, but also create conditions for the development and progress of society.

The labor process is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon. The main forms of its manifestation are the costs of human energy, the interaction of the worker with the means of production (objects and means of labor) and the production interaction of workers with each other both horizontally (the relationship of participation in a single labor process) and vertically (the relationship between the leader and the subordinate) . The role of labor in the development of man and society is manifested in the fact that in the process of labor not only material and spiritual values \u200b\u200bare created to meet the needs of people, but also the workers themselves develop, who acquire skills, reveal their abilities, replenish and enrich knowledge. The creative nature of labor finds its expression in the emergence of new ideas, progressive technologies, more advanced and highly productive tools of labor, new types of products, materials, energy, which, in turn, lead to the development of needs.

Thus, in the process labor activity not only goods are produced, services are provided, cultural values are created, etc., but new needs appear with the requirements of their subsequent satisfaction (Fig. 1.1).

The sociological aspect of the study is to consider labor as a system public relations, in determining its impact on society.

Rice. 1.1

In the process of labor, people enter into certain social relations, interacting with each other. Social interactions in the sphere of work, it is a form of social ties realized in the exchange of activities and mutual action. The objective basis for the interaction of people is the commonality or divergence of their interests, close or distant goals, views. The mediators of the interaction of people in the sphere of labor, its intermediate links are tools and objects of labor, material and spiritual benefits. The constant interaction of separate individuals or communities in the process of labor activity in certain social conditions forms specific social relations.

Social Relations - is the relationship between the members social communities and given communities about their social status, way of life, and ultimately about the conditions for the formation and development of personality, social communities. They are manifested in the position of individual groups of workers in the labor process, communication links between them, i.e. in the mutual exchange of information to influence the behavior and performance of others, as well as to assess their own position, which affects the formation of the interests and behavior of these groups.

These relations are inextricably linked with labor relations and are conditioned by them from the very beginning. For example, workers get used to the labor organization, adapt due to objective needs and thus enter into labor relations, regardless of who will work nearby, who is the leader, what style of activity he has. However, then each worker manifests himself in his own way in relationships with each other, with the manager, in relation to work, to the order of distribution of work, and so on. Consequently, on the basis of objective relations, relations of a socio-psychological nature begin to take shape, characterized by a certain emotional mood, the nature of people's communication and relationships in a labor organization, and the atmosphere in it.

Thus, social and labor relations make it possible to determine social significance, role, place, social status of an individual and a group. They are the link between the worker and the master, the leader and a group of subordinates, certain groups workers and their individual members. Not a single group of workers, not a single member of a labor organization can exist outside of such relations, outside of mutual obligations in relation to each other, outside of interactions (Fig. 1.2).

As you can see, in practice there is a variety of social and labor relations. They, as well as various social phenomena and processes in the conditions of the existing market, are studied by the sociology of labor. Therefore, the sociology of labor is the study of the functioning and social aspects of the market in the world of work. If we try to narrow this concept, we can say that sociology of work is the behavior of employers and employees in response to economic and social incentives to work. It is this kind of incentives, on the one hand, encourage individual choice, and on the other hand, limit it. In sociological theory, the emphasis is on incentives that regulate labor behavior, which are not impersonal in nature and relate to workers, wide groups of people.

Rice. 1.2

subject of sociology labor are the structure and mechanism of social and labor relations, as well as social processes and phenomena in the world of work.

The aim of the sociology of labor is this is the study of social processes and the development of recommendations for their regulation and management, forecasting and planning, aimed at creating optimal conditions for the functioning of society, a team, a group, an individual in the world of work and achieving on this basis the most complete realization and the optimal combination of their interests.

Tasks of the sociology of labor consist in:

study and optimization social structure society, labor organization (collective);

analysis of the labor market as a regulator of optimal and rational mobility of labor resources;

search for ways of optimal implementation labor potential modern worker;

optimal combination of moral and financial incentives and improvement of attitude to work in the market conditions;

amplification social control and the fight against various kinds of deviations from generally accepted moral principles and labor standards;

studying the causes and developing a system of measures to prevent and resolve labor conflicts;

creating a system of social guarantees that protect workers in society, labor organization, etc.

In other words, the tasks of the sociology of labor are reduced to the development of methods and techniques for using social factors in the interests of solving the most important socio-economic problems of society and the individual, which include the creation of a system of social guarantees, maintaining and strengthening the social protection of citizens in order to accelerate the social reorientation of the economy.

For the collection and analysis of information in the sociology of labor are widely used sociological methods which appear in:

achieved knowledge about the subject of research (understanding the essence of labor and relations in the sphere of labor);

the process of fact gathering methods;

way to make a conclusion, i.e. formulate conclusions about causal relationships between phenomena.

It should be noted that studies conducted within the framework of the sociology of labor provide the necessary and sufficiently reliable information for the formation social policy, development of evidence-based programs for social economic development labor organizations(collectives), to solve social problems and contradictions that constantly accompany labor activity and employees. Thus, the sociology of labor is called upon, on the one hand, to expand knowledge about the really existing reality, on the other hand, to promote the establishment of new connections and processes taking place in the sphere of labor.

Capitalism, i.e. market economy is a system of social interaction and division of labor based on private ownership of the means

production. The material factors of production are owned by individual citizens, capitalists and landowners. Production in factories and farms is organized by entrepreneurs and farmers, i.e., individuals or associations of individuals who either themselves own capital or have borrowed or rented it from the owners. characteristic feature capitalism is free enterprise. The goal of any entrepreneur, be it an industrialist or a farmer, is to make a profit.

Using the text, indicate any two characteristic features of a market economy considered by the author!

Capitalism, i.e. market economy is a system of social interaction and division of labor based on private ownership of the environment.

production lines. The material factors of production are owned by individual citizens, capitalists and landowners. Production in factories and farms is organized by entrepreneurs and farmers, i.e., individuals or associations of individuals who either themselves own capital or have borrowed or rented it from the owners. The hallmark of capitalism is free enterprise. The goal of any entrepreneur, be it an industrialist or a farmer, is to make a profit.

The real masters in the capitalist system of the market economy are the consumers. By buying or not buying, they decide who should own the capital and run the businesses. They determine what should be produced, as well as how much and what quality. Their choice translates into profit or loss for the entrepreneur. They make the poor rich and the rich poor. These owners are not easy to get along with. They are full of whims and quirks, they are fickle and unpredictable. They do not put a penny on the previous merits. As soon as they are offered something that is more to their taste or cheaper, they leave the old suppliers. The main thing for them is their own well-being and satisfaction. They do not care about the money spent by the capitalists, nor the fate of the workers who lose their jobs, as consumers they stop buying what they used to buy.

When we say that the production of a certain commodity A does not pay off, what do we mean? This indicates that consumers are no longer willing to pay manufacturers how many topics are needed to cover the necessary production costs, at the same time, the profits of other producers are higher than the costs of production. Consumer demands play an important role in the distribution of productive resources among the various sectors of the production of consumer goods. The consumers thus decide how much raw material and labor will be used to make A and how much the other good will require. It makes no sense, therefore, to oppose production for the sake of profit and production for the sake of consumption. The desire for profit forces the entrepreneur to supply consumers with those goods for which there is a demand in the first place. If the entrepreneur were not guided by the profit motive, he could produce more items And despite the preference of consumers to have something else. The desire for profit is the factor that forces the businessman to most effectively ensure the production of the goods most preferred by the consumers themselves.

Thus, the capitalist system of production is an economic democracy where every cent has a vote. The sovereign people is the consumer. Capitalists, entrepreneurs and farmers are the representatives of the people. If they do not correspond to the assigned task, if they are not able to produce at a minimum cost the goods demanded by consumers, they lose their posts. Their responsibility is to serve consumers. Profits and losses are the instruments by which consumers control all kinds of economic activity.

using the text, give three explanations for the author's idea that the owner of the market is the consumer

What is the labor market for?

How do ask questions work in the labor market?
Why is it difficult to achieve equilibrium in the labor market?
What are the reasons for unemployment?
What are the features various kinds unemployment?
Why is unemployment an inevitable companion of a market economy?
How does the state regulate the employment of the population?

How did labor influence the processes of anthropogenesis and sociogenesis? What are the goals of labor activity? How do they manifest themselves in terms of profession

Specialty, qualification? What are the differences between labor and play in human life?

Please help me check if I did it right. 1. The social consequences of the scientific and technological revolution are discussed in the judgment:

Thanks to scientific and technical progress, it is possible to increase labor productivity and quality

products

in the era of scientific and technological revolution, the subject of labor is qualitatively changing - materials that are processed in the production process

under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution, the professional structure of the working class is changing

2. Intensive economic growth is most characterized by:

involvement in the production process additional factors production: natural resources, labor

Using Achievements scientific and technological progress

improving the quality of goods

3. Extensive economic growth is most characterized by:
+ involvement in the production process of additional factors of production: natural resources, labor

Using the achievements of scientific and technological progress

Increasing the number of products produced

4. Opponents of economic growth:

believe that economic growth is in conflict with universal human values

refer to the effects of pollution environment

They think that economic growth causes people anxiety

5. The need for state intervention in the market economy is associated with:

ideology

the need to use resources efficiently

Uneven economic development

6. social regulation market economy means:

Maintaining the poor

even distribution of income

higher taxes for the rich

7. Legal regulation of the market economy means:

issuance of laws strictly regulating the behavior of market participants

process

publication of laws aimed at protecting the interests of all participants in market relations

Issuance of laws aimed at limiting monopolies

8. At what stage of the economic cycle is there a sharp decline in demand for goods and services?
Depression
+Crisis
revival

9. Which of the following characteristics corresponds to the stage of revival?
The output of the quantity of goods reaches the pre-crisis state
+ The output of the number of goods exceeds the pre-crisis level
Unemployment and inflation are on the rise

10. Which of the characteristics most accurately reflects the essence of the overproduction crisis?
Crisis leads to uncertainty of people in tomorrow
The crisis is characterized as a negative phenomenon in the economy
+ Crisis is a natural stage of development, an imbalance in the economy

11. Economic function of the state:
ensuring the defense of the country
protection of law and order
+ support for the disabled and pensioners

12. The task of the Central Bank in regulating the monetary sphere of the state:
+ fighting inflation
distribution of the state budget
financing big deals

13. Will benefit from higher inflation:
military personnel on a fixed income
+ debtors who borrowed money at a fixed percentage
fixed-interest lenders

14. Emission is:

undesirable phenomenon in the economy

The process of issuing banknotes to regulate the amount of money supply

The process of issuing banknotes, inevitably leading to inflation

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Introduction
Conclusion

Introduction

Most scientists in the field economy labor consider that its subject is labor as an expedient activity of people arising in the process and about production See: Economy labor and social and labor relations / Ed.G. G. Melikyan, R.P. Kolosova. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1996. . IN foreign countries experts believe that labor economics is a study of the functioning and results of the labor market, and in a narrow sense, the behavior of employers and employees in response to the action of general incentives in the form wages, profit and non-monetary factors in the field of labor relations See: Ehrenberg R., J. Smith R.S. Modern labor economics. Theory and public policy. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1996. .

Based on the content of these formulations, the development of the subject of labor economics will be carried out in the following areas:

disclosure of the content and regulation of social and labor relations in the field of labor resources, the labor market and employment, providing for the creation of conditions for the effective functioning of labor resources;

economic directions in the field of improving the efficiency of labor activity (factors, conditions, reserves, indicators) in codification form, taking into account the transition period to market relations;

motivational and stimulating directions of prerequisites for effective, fruitful activity of labor resources in the conditions of market relations;

directions related to quantitative aspects, principles of labor process management, namely productivity, composition and number of employees and their payment.

In Russia, achievements in the field of labor economics are in most cases associated with the activities of the Research Institute of Labor of the Ministry of Labor and social protection RF, which has published a large number of guidelines on a very wide range of issues.

Sociology labor - part of general sociology, the subject of which is a diverse set of social and labor relations and social processes in the sphere of work. Studies of the sociology of labor serve to identify social reserves for increasing the efficiency of labor activity along with providing conditions for the development of workers, meeting their needs, and forming positive intra-collective relations.

1. The essence and functions of labor, its social aspects. Subject area of sociology of work

Work - This expedient activity of people, directed on Creation material And cultural values . Labor is the basis and an indispensable condition for the life of people. By influencing the natural environment, changing and adapting it to their needs, people not only ensure their existence, but also create conditions for the development and progress of society.

Thus, in the process of labor activity, not only goods are produced, services are provided, cultural values are created, etc., but new needs appear with the requirements for their subsequent satisfaction (Fig. 1.1).

The sociological aspect of the study is to consider labor as a system of social relations, to determine its impact on society.

Rice. 1.1 The role of labor in the development of man and society

In the process of labor, people enter into certain social relations, interacting with each other. Social interactions in the sphere of work, it is a form of social ties realized in the exchange of activities and mutual action. The objective basis for the interaction of people is the commonality or divergence of their interests, close or distant goals, views. The mediators of the interaction of people in the sphere of labor, its intermediate links are tools and objects of labor, material and spiritual benefits. The constant interaction of separate individuals or communities in the process of labor activity in certain social conditions forms specific social relations.

Social relationship - it is the relationship between members of social communities and these communities about their social status, image and way of life, ultimately about the conditions for the formation and development of personality, social communities. They are manifested in the position of individual groups of workers in the labor process, communication links between them, i.e. in the mutual exchange of information to influence the behavior and performance of others, as well as to assess their own position, which affects the formation of the interests and behavior of these groups.

Thus, social and labor relations make it possible to determine the social significance, role, place, social position of an individual and a group. They are the link between the worker and the master, the leader and a group of subordinates, certain groups of workers and their individual members. Not a single group of workers, not a single member of a labor organization can exist outside of such relations, outside of mutual obligations in relation to each other, outside of interactions (Fig. 1.2).

As you can see, in practice there is a variety of social and labor relations. They, as well as various social phenomena and processes in the conditions of the existing market, are studied by the sociology of labor. Therefore, the sociology of labor is the study of the functioning and social aspects of the market in the world of work. If we try to narrow this concept, we can say that With O ciology labor - This behavior employers And hired workers V answer on action economic And social incentives To labor . It is this kind of incentives, on the one hand, encourage individual choice, and on the other hand, limit it. In sociological theory, the emphasis is on incentives that regulate labor behavior, which are not impersonal in nature and relate to workers, wide groups of people.

Rice. 1.2 Social and labor relations in the world of work

Subject sociology labor are the structure and mechanism of social and labor relations, as well as social processes and phenomena in the world of work.

Target sociology labor - this is the study of social processes and the development of recommendations for their regulation and management, forecasting and planning, aimed at creating optimal conditions for the functioning of society, a team, a group, an individual in the world of work and achieving on this basis the most complete realization and the optimal combination of their interests.

Tasks sociology labor consist in:

study and optimization of the social structure of society, labor organization (team);

analysis of the labor market as a regulator of optimal and rational mobility of labor resources;

finding ways to optimally realize the labor potential of a modern worker;

the optimal combination of moral and material incentives and the improvement of attitudes towards work in market conditions;

strengthening social control and combating various kinds of deviations from the generally accepted moral principles and norms in the sphere of work;

studying the causes and developing a system of measures to prevent and resolve labor conflicts;

creating a system of social guarantees that protect workers in society, labor organization, etc.

To collect and analyze information in the sociology of labor, sociological methods are widely used, which manifest themselves in:

achieved knowledge about the subject of research (understanding the essence of labor and relations in the sphere of labor);

the process of fact gathering methods;

way to make a conclusion, i.e. formulate conclusions about causal relationships between phenomena.

It should be noted that studies conducted within the framework of the sociology of labor provide the necessary and sufficiently reliable information for the formation of social policy, the development of scientifically based programs for the socio-economic development of labor organizations (collectives), for solving social problems and contradictions that constantly accompany labor activity and workers. . Thus, the sociology of labor is called upon, on the one hand, to expand knowledge about the really existing reality, on the other hand, to promote the establishment of new connections and processes taking place in the sphere of labor.

2. Structure and reproduction of the population and labor resources

The state and development of a society will largely be determined by the number and composition of its population. Under population understood scoop P ness crowded, living on certain territories - area, city, R e gyone, country .

Labor resources - This able-bodied Part population, possessed Yu schaya physical And intellectual abilities To labor de I ness, able produce material good or render at With meadows, those. labor resources include, on the one hand, those people who are employed in the economy, and on the other hand, those who are not employed, but able to work. Thus, the labor force consists of actual and potential workers.

The necessary physical and intellectual abilities depend on age. In the early and mature period of a person's life, they are formed and multiplied, and by old age they are lost. Age acts as a kind of criterion that makes it possible to single out the actual labor resources from the entire population.

Before considering the basic concepts of various areas of study of labor resources, it is advisable to look at the composition and structure of the population and the change in its size.

**Underreproduction population understood process continuous renewal generations of people V result interactions give birth O sti And mortality . Distinguishthreetypereproductionpopulation**:

expanded reproduction is characterized by an excess of the number of births over the number of deaths;

simple reproduction - in this case there is no increase, since the number of births is equal to the number of deaths;

narrowed - mortality exceeds the birth rate, there is an absolute reduction in the population.

The reproduction of the population has not only demographic, but also economic and social aspects. It determines the formation of labor resources, the development of territories, the state of productive forces, the development of social infrastructure, etc.

The population and labor resources have quantitative and qualitative characteristics that are necessary for the analysis and assessment of demographic processes and the development of a strategy in the field of labor resources management. To characterize the reproduction of the population, indicators of fertility, mortality and natural increase are used.

fertility And mortality are calculated per 1000 people (in ppm) and measured using coefficient systems and tables. The difference between the number of births and deaths with a positive result is called natural growth population.

And

where K R and K C are the birth and death rates, respectively;

R - number of births per year;

C is the number of deaths per year;

N C - average annual population.

The average annual population is determined for the middle of the year as the arithmetic average of the population data at the beginning and end of the year, or by adding half of its growth to the initial population.

From Table. Figure 1 shows that the permanent population of Russia is declining with the structure of the urban and rural population unchanged. The decline in population is caused, on the one hand, by a decrease in the relative number of births, on the other hand, by an increase in the relative number of deaths, which predetermined a natural population decline of 5-6 per thousand per year over the past three years. The relative number of marriages and divorces did not change significantly during the period under review.

Table 1. number,compoundAndindicatorsnaturalmovementspopulationRussia

The number, composition of the population in all countries of the world is determined using censuses. The last census in our country took place in 1989. Its main data have been published and serve as the basis for obtaining demographic data in the subsequent period. The next census is scheduled for 1999. Population censuses provide the most accurate data on population numbers.

Population forecasting allows. identify expected population changes; assess the demographic situation that is developing both in individual regions and in the country as a whole; determine the number of labor resources, the development of their educational and professional qualification level; trace the influence of other socio-economic and environmental factors on the reproductive process. In order to determine the prospective population size, the method of retrospective extrapolation is used when compiling a short-term forecast, and for longer periods, the method of shifting by age is used.

Table 2. populationpermanentpopulationRussia( at the beginning of the year, thousand people)

The population forecast is made taking into account long-term trends in fertility and mortality, as well as the age and sex composition of the population. Since the mid-1960s, the birth rate in the country has not ensured a simple reproduction of the population: there are fewer children than their parents. By the beginning of the 70s, the two-child family became dominant, then the number of families with one child gradually increased. For nearly three decades, the natural increase in the population due to the numerous generations of women of childbearing age has increased, but in the 90s the proportion of these generations has decreased. In the next decade, the birth rate will be somewhat higher than at present. However, this will not be enough for a day of resumption of natural population growth.

3. The structure of the formation of labor resources

Age limits and the socio-demographic composition of labor resources are determined by the system of state legislative acts. In Russia, working age is considered: for men 16-59 years old inclusive and for women 16-54 years old. Working age limits are not the same in different countries. In a number of countries, the lower limit of working age is set at 14-15 years (in some - 18 years), and the upper limit - in many 65 years for everyone, or 65 years for men and 60-62 years for women.

Table 3

MediumdurationlifeAndageexitonretirement(years)

In Russia, for several years now, the question has been raised about the need to raise the age threshold, after reaching which an old-age pension is established from 60 to 65 years for men, from 55 to 60 years for women. Such a process will take place gradually, in stages - initially up to 62-63 years for men and up to 57-58 years for women. There are supporters and opponents of such a decision. For example, one of the arguments put forward by opponents of raising the retirement age is the reference to the plight of the working population in general.

Since 1993, the Russian Federation has made a transition to international system qualifications of the composition of the population See: Main methodological provisions for the classification of statistical data on the composition of the labor force, economic activity and employment status. / Economy and life. - 1993. - No. 20. . In accordance with this classification in Fig. 2.1 shows a diagram of the composition of labor resources.

Rice. 2.1 Labor force and economically active population

Economically active population - part of the population that provides the supply of labor for the production of goods and services. The number of economically active population includes employed and unemployed, measured in relation to the surveyed period. In order to determine the economic activity of the population, its level is considered:

where Y EA - the level of economic activity of the population;

d EA is the share of the economically active population;

CH N - total strength population.

As can be seen from Table. 2.4, the tendency to maintain the economically active population and the share of employment of the population remains unchanged. At the same time, the number of unemployed is growing, which makes it possible to characterize the picture as a whole as negative.

Economically inactive population - this is the population that is not in the labor force, including the younger age group defined for measuring the economically active population. The size of the economically inactive population is measured in relation to the surveyed period and includes the following categories:

pupils and students, listeners and cadets attending daytime educational institutions (including daytime postgraduate and doctoral studies);

persons receiving old-age pensions and on preferential terms, as well as receiving pensions due to the loss of a breadwinner when they reach retirement age;

persons receiving disability pensions (1,2, 3 groups);

persons engaged in housekeeping, caring for children, sick relatives, etc.;

desperate to find a job, i.e. persons who have stopped looking for a job, having exhausted all the possibilities of obtaining it, but who are able and willing to work;

other persons who do not need to work, regardless of the source of income.

Table 4

populationAndcompoundeconomicallyactivepopulationRussia

The name of indicators	Thousand Human	Percentage of economically active population

Economically active population: total 75665 men 38880 women 36785 total 72071 men 37063 women 35008 unemployed: total* 3594 men 1817 women 1777	75012 38702 36298 70852 36560 34292	73962 39077 34885 68484 36132 32352	72872 38899 33973 66441 35413 31028	72788 100 38839 100 33949 100 66000 98,3 35112 95,3 30888 95,2
Source: Russia these. - in numbers: Brief statistical collection / Goskomstat Ros- M. 1996. - S.33.

*At the end of the year.

Structurelaborresources multifaceted. It includes various components that characterize certain aspects of labor resources. Let's consider its components.

Rice. 2.2 Structure of labor resources

Structure of labor resources By semi is important for the formation of an effective structure of employment by areas of application of labor in the professional, sectoral and territorial contexts and is determined by identifying the ratio of men and women employed in social production, household and personal households, studying with a break from work, etc. It varies across the country and areas of employment.

First of all, we note that the proportion of men in the labor force of Russia is greater than that of women. The ratio is as follows: men - 62.5%, women - 51.2% Market labor in the Commonwealth countries in figures and diagrams. - M., 1994. - S. 8-9. . This is due to the fact that the working age for men is 5 years higher. However, this ratio is changing due to an increase in the mortality of men of working age.

Level education labor resources - their most important qualitative characteristic. He is determined by the average number of years of study, the number of pupils and students, the proportion of specialists with higher education, and other indicators of society. The level of education is characterized by such indicators as the percentage of literacy, the average number of years of education, the distribution of the population into groups depending on the education received.

Table 5

Leveleducationpopulation

As can be seen from the table, the number of persons with higher, incomplete higher and secondary special education, increased from 322 people. in 1989 to 370 in 1994, or 15%. The average level of education of the working population in Russia has increased from 8.1 years in 1970 to 11.0 years at present, which is significantly lower than in the United States, where it is now about 14 years Russia today is a real opportunity. - M.: Observer, 1994. - S. 106. .

Important information about the quality of intellectual potential is provided by the orientation of professional training in the system of higher education. Now its structure in our country and in the West differs quite significantly.

Table 6

populationalumnihigherschoolsByfocuslearning,VpercentTototal

These tables show that in our country, in comparison with developed countries, training in engineering specialties prevails. But in the field of the humanities and social sciences, we are seriously lagging behind other countries.

Quantitative changes in the number of labor resources are characterized by such indicators as absolute growth, growth rates and growth rates of labor resources.

Absolute growth is defined as the difference between the number of labor resources at the beginning and end of the period under review; Usually it can be a year or a longer period of time.

Pace growth regarded as a relation absolute value the number of labor resources at the end of a given period to their value at the beginning of the period. If the rate is taken over a number of years, then the average annual rate is determined as the geometric mean according to the following formula:

Where T RS_ - average annual growth rate;

n - number of years;

R n - number at the end of the period;

R O - number at the beginning of the period.

Pace growth calculated by the formula:

where T PS is the average annual growth rate.

4. Organizational Foundations wages

On the basis of the principles of organization and functions of wages in the conditions of building market relations, an organizational system of remuneration is created directly at the lower levels - at the enterprise. Restructuring the organization of wages The organization of wages is understood as its construction, ensuring the relationship between the amount of labor and the amount of its payment, as well as the totality of constituent elements(rationing, tariff system, bonuses, surcharges and allowances). in accordance with the requirements of the market provides for the solution of the following tasks:

increasing the interest of each employee in identifying and using the reserves of the efficiency of their work, while excluding the possibility of obtaining unearned funds;

eliminating cases of equalization in wages, achieving a direct dependence of wages on the results of work, both individual and collective;

optimization of ratios in remuneration of workers of various categories and professional groups, taking into account the complexity of the work performed, working conditions that take into account the shortage of professions, as well as the influence of various groups working on the achievement of final results, and the competitiveness of production.

Since there is a specificity in the organization of wages at the lower levels of management, its organizational prerequisites should be as shown in Fig. 4.3.

social aspect labor resource

Rice. 4.3 Organizational bases of remuneration at the enterprise

When organizing wages at the enterprise, the interests of employers and employees are affected. Undoubtedly, during the transition to market relations, the parties should have equal rights in resolving issues of remuneration. Collective agreements between the administration of an enterprise (or a representative of the owner) and a trade union representing the interests of employees become a legal, valid and the only effective form of regulation of labor relations, including in matters of wages.

In market conditions, and even more so in the transition period, the directions and nature of state regulation of distribution relations are changing, new forms of management appear that exclude rigid administration schemes, and new requirements are imposed on regulatory processes at the enterprise level. State intervention is necessary to establish, interpret and enforce the terms and principles of income distribution. The regulatory impact of the state should be aimed at creating conditions for earning money and social guarantees in order to increase the efficiency of the use of labor, the implementation and coordination of the interests of the subjects of distribution relations, functioning on the basis of various forms of ownership and management.

The basis of state regulation of distribution relations should be: legislation and labor agreements, the tax system, establishing the relationship between the dynamics of individual incomes and inflation. Without the participation of the state, it is impossible to guarantee a person an income that provides him with a decent life, regardless of the outcome economic activity enterprises. The functions of the state, in addition, should include raising the incomes of the poor in order to create conditions for the normal reproduction of the labor force, ensure the optimal distribution of labor resources, ease social tensions, etc. Becoming a participant in the reproduction of the labor force, the state largely takes over the supply of labor force, strives to ensure that it meets the demand of entrepreneurs.

To regulate these issues, an effective system of multi-level collective agreements is needed, the basis for which we have created in the legislative field, but much remains to be done to implement, refine, specify, and clarify the various provisions of this system. The Law of the Russian Federation "On Collective Contracts and Agreements" provides for the conclusion of general, sectoral, special agreements and collective agreements. The Decree of the Council of Ministers - the Government of the Russian Federation of July 14, 1993 approved the regulation on the Russian tripartite commission for the regulation of social and labor relations, providing for:

establishing general principles coordinated implementation of socio-economic policy, taking into account the interests of employees and employers;

system development social partnership;

promoting the settlement of collective labor disputes(conflicts).

The implementation of these legislative acts marked the beginning of the development of a system of social partnership in the field of labor relations, but the mechanism of their action has not yet been sufficiently developed.

Describing the practical steps in the field of wage regulation in our country, it should be noted that the Uniform Tariff Rate (ETC) was developed and introduced to differentiate wage levels for various categories of workers, which makes it possible to ensure equal pay for work of equal complexity, regardless of the scope of its application for production workers. and non-productive sectors of the economy financed from budgetary funds.

A measure of state regulation of wages, ensuring the social protection of low-income, low-paid workers, is the establishment of a minimum wage on an objective basis.

The introduction of a unified tariff scale for the remuneration of public sector employees comes down to a periodic review of the first category tariff rate, i.e. the minimum tariff rate, at the level of organizations and institutions in this area. For enterprises that are not related to the budget, the value of this rate should be provided for in industry agreements, collective agreements and depend on the profitability of the industry, enterprise. It should be noted that there is a pronounced differentiation in the levels of tariff rates of the first category by industry, which leads to negative consequences in the country's economy. There is a need to streamline work on the conclusion of sectoral tariff agreements, reflecting in them the conditions for remuneration of workers.

Returning to the question of the problems of setting the minimum wage based on social standards, it should be noted that the latter are the main element of the normative approach in assessing the needs of the population. First of all, this is a criterion for the effective distribution of consumption resources, social guarantees in the field of income distribution, an integral attribute of the system of indexing the income of the population. They are standards without which it is impossible to evaluate existing level life. It is necessary to strive for their comprehension in the formation of social policy. The disadvantages of social norms include:

lack of a unified methodological approach in the calculation of standards. Developers of social standards most often act in isolation from each other, which leads to inconsistency and duplication of work. The same social norms developed in different departments have different meanings,

poor organization of approbation of standards and analysis of the methodology for their calculation (only the final results are discussed), lack of clarity in the issue of approving standards;

imperfection of consumption norms as the basis for calculating social standards (practically they are not differentiated by districts, socio-demographic groups of the population, do not cover the entire range of consumer goods and services; they most often focus on abstract rather than real needs).

The sequence of work on the organization of wages at the enterprise is presented in fig. 4.4, which shows solutions to problems united in three large blocks: the choice of the method of forming the basic salary; choice of forms of remuneration; choice of control systems.

When organizing wages at an enterprise, it is important to choose the method of forming the basic wage on the basis of the Unified tariff scale, or a tariff-free wage system. Priority belongs to the ETC, with the use of which a more objective differentiation of the wages of workers of different qualifications is achieved. However, due to the constantly changing economic situation, enterprises often have to change tariff rates, which leads to large labor costs. Tariff-free system wages allows you to put wages in direct proportion to the actual results of the enterprise. Payroll is less labor intensive, but only for small businesses.

Rice. 4.4 The sequence of work but the organization of wages in the enterprise

criterion economic efficiency organization of wages is the outpacing growth of self-supporting income over the wage fund. In cases where such a lead is not provided, a thorough analysis of the reasons and the development of additional measures aimed either at increasing profits or at reducing labor costs are necessary.

IN modern conditions it is impossible to properly organize wages at an enterprise without its main element - labor rationing, which makes it possible to establish a correspondence between the volume of labor costs and the amount of its payment in specific organizational and technical conditions. Work to improve labor rationing should be aimed at improving the quality of standards and, above all, at ensuring equal intensity of standards for all types of labor and for all groups of workers. Equal intensity of the norms in different production areas is achieved either by establishing equal or numerically close intensity coefficients for individual elements of the labor process or types of work, or by taking into account a certain level of labor intensity in the norms. The equal intensity of the norms implies the same intensity of labor in different areas of production. In this regard, the first value can be set taking into account pace work And time employment:

I= K THK Z,

where I - indicator of labor intensity, shares of units;

K T - coefficient of the pace of work, shares of units;

K W - coefficient of time of employment, shares of units.

In practice, to assess the intensity of labor, only one of its indicators is often used - the pace of work. In this case, all established costs of working time are adjusted by the coefficient of the pace of work.

The rate of work coefficient characterizes the ratio of the actual rate of work to the physically optimal one, and the employment rate is the ratio of the actual time of employment per shift to the conditional reference level equal to a certain percentage of the duration of the shift. If the intensity of the corpse at a given workplace differs from the normative, then measures should be taken to reduce or increase it, in particular, to change the labor standard.

Improving the rationing of workers' labor is carried out on the basis of a comprehensive analysis of its condition by workshops, sections and others. structural divisions, by types of work, professions, etc. In this case, one should rely on data from the analysis of the level of compliance with the norms, photographs of the working day, and time measurements.

For pieceworkers, the main indicator on the basis of which the level of wages is regulated is the percentage of performance standards. A higher value of the indicator makes it possible to provide higher wages for the same tariff rates, as well as increase bonus payments, if the indicator of bonuses is the level of fulfillment of the norms. Therefore, one of the main areas of analysis and establishment of equally stressed norms is to determine the level of compliance with the norms: in the main and auxiliary production, by structural divisions, by types of work, professions, by categories of work, at work with normal conditions and work with difficult and dangerous working conditions.

Improving the labor rationing of specialists and employees, as well as certain categories of workers, should be carried out on the basis of an analysis of the degree of their workload and a rational distribution of duties, improvement of the management structure and the introduction of modern technical means. It is necessary to carry out work to reduce and streamline redundant management units, to reduce the number of auxiliary, servicing and management personnel. Each specialist should determine the work schedule that ensures his full daily load during the day. The provisions of the regulations must be specific, reflect the specifics of the work of a specialist at a given workplace, in a given position and the corresponding qualification category. As a result of the work to determine new structure enterprise and its management systems, job titles of employees in accordance with the functions actually performed by them, the required for compilation is established staffing the number of managers, specialists and employees.

Conclusion

Labor resources are the most important and active part of society's resources. This is the able-bodied part of the population with physical and intellectual abilities for labor activity, which can produce material goods or provide services. To characterize labor resources, their division by age, gender, education, etc. is used. The starting point for the reproduction of labor resources is their formation, which is determined by the natural reproduction of the population. The natural movement of the population is determined by the difference in birth and death rates.

Of great social and economic importance is the composition of the population by education. It is characterized by the percentage of literates, the average number of years of schooling, and so on. Population forecasting is very important. It allows you to identify expected changes in the population, assess the demographic situation, and determine the size of the labor force.

Wages in a market economy are an element of the income of an employee, a form of economic realization of the right of ownership of the labor resource belonging to him. Main element wages is the wage rate, which is influenced by factors: changes in supply and demand in the market of goods and services, in the production of which we use this labor; the usefulness of the resource for the entrepreneur; price elasticity of demand for labor; interchangeability of resources; change and to consumer goods and services. The organization of wages is understood as its construction, ensuring the relationship between the amount of labor and the amount of its payment, as well as a set of constituent elements (rationing, tariff system, bonuses, surcharges and allowances). A very important element of the organization of wages is the tariff system, which is a combination of various normative materials, with the help of which the level of wages of workers is established depending on a group of factors.

Labor productivity - an indicator of the economic efficiency of the labor activity of employees . It is determined by the ratio of the number of products or services produced to labor costs, i.e. output per unit of labor input. The development of society and the level of well-being of all its members depend on the level and dynamics of labor productivity. Moreover, the level of labor productivity determines both the mode of production and even the socio-political system itself.

There is also the concept of labor efficiency. It is wider than productivity, and includes, in addition to the economic (actual labor productivity), also the psycho-physiological and social aspects. The psychophysiological efficiency of labor is determined by the impact of the labor process on the human body. From this point of view, only such labor can be recognized as effective, which, along with a certain productivity, provides harmless, favorable sanitary and hygienic conditions and safety; sufficient content of labor and observance of the boundaries of its division; opportunities for the comprehensive development of physical, mental strengths and abilities of a person in the labor process; prevents the negative impact of the working environment on the employee. From this comes the concept social efficiency labor, which includes the requirement for the harmonious development of the personality of each employee, the improvement of his qualifications and the expansion of the production profile, the formation of a positive social climate in business teams, the strengthening of socio-political activity, and the improvement of the whole way of life.

If these requirements are not met, then the growth rates of labor productivity will inevitably decrease. Thus, unfavorable sanitary and hygienic and unhealthy working conditions cause loss of working time due to morbidity, the provision of additional holidays, and a reduction in the most active period of a person's labor activity. Too fractional division of labor limits the possibility of expanding the production profile of a person and the growth of his qualifications. Negative social relationships in labor collectives can also significantly reduce labor productivity, other things being equal, its organization.

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Categorical ideas about labor and their modern interpretation

All existing ideas about labor can be divided into everyday and scientific. In the ordinary view, the work of a person is the simplest phenomenon in his life. Therefore, at a superficial glance, it seems that the labor process is easily amenable to research and study. Labor for a person can be both a severe punishment and a joy. What it will be - hard labor or happiness - depends on the organizer of labor activity.

In economic theory, labor is one of the basic categories. The founders of classical political economy (W. Petty, A. Smith, D. Ricardo) considered the concept of "labor" as a special specific product. A. Smith, for example, believed that labor is any production activity person.

Until the beginning of the XXI century. labor was mainly considered in categories oriented towards the views of political economists of the 19th century. Traditionally, it was defined as an expedient human activity aimed at preserving, modifying, adapting the environment to meet their needs, and at the production of goods and services.

In subsequent periods, approaches to work focused not on the process of human interaction with nature, but on certain relationships between its participants. At the same time, it was emphasized that labor has a dual nature, for it is both a means of "exchange of matter" between man and nature, and a means of communication between people in the production process.

This definition is typical for political economy science, where preference was given to the problems physical labor. It was believed that "... the labor process includes three points:

1) purposeful human activity, or labor itself;
2) the subject of labor;
3) the tools of production with which a person acts on this object ". From all these definitions it follows that the subject of labor is Human.

Proponents of neoclassical economic theory treat the concept of "labor" as a factor of production along with "land" and "capital", which flows into the production process through the efforts of individuals and is not a unique source of value creation.

A number of authors define labor as "an expedient activity for the creation of material and spiritual wealth necessary to meet the needs of each individual and society as a whole", i.e. emphasizes its feasibility and focus on final result, which distinguishes meaningful human labor from animal activity, reminiscent of labor, but of an instinctive nature (a squirrel collects nuts, a bear collects honey, bees make honeycombs) ".

abstract labor in material terms, there is nothing more than the energy expended by a person (mental, physical) in the social plan - this is the relationship between people about the energy spent on the production of goods in the conditions of commodity production. In the process of production and manufacture of goods, it is not the labor force, the carrier of which is a person, that is consumed, but the energy of a person (brain, muscles, etc.).

Good- this is everything that contains a certain positive meaning: an object, a phenomenon, a product of labor that satisfies one or another human need and meets the interests, goals, aspirations of people. Sometimes benefits are considered as embodied utility, which can be understood not only as products of labor, but also as fruits of nature.

Service is an expedient human activity, the result of which has a beneficial effect that satisfies any human needs. Their satisfaction is perceived by people as the consumption (acquisition) of a good. The activities of a broker or a stock speculator, of course, are labor, although they do not create benefits, but only redistribute them among people, thereby providing them with certain services. The principle of creating wealth should also apply to those activities that are associated with the provision and maintenance of the processes of changing ownership of certain goods.

Labor simultaneously acts both as a process of interaction between a person and nature, as a result of which various benefits are created and a person adapts to the external environment, and as certain relations between its participants, as a result of which an impact is made both on external environment as well as human nature itself.

At the same time, almost all modern researchers recognize that labor as a factor of production is unique, requiring a special approach to its study. However, the analysis of the specifics of labor as a factor of production requires, first of all, consideration of the characteristics of labor in the entire diverse spectrum of human activity.

IN market economy work includes not only work for hire, but also work within the household. In the modern labor economy, home production is understood as non-market labor activity that does not bring cash income to the household: growing food and harvesting food, cooking, repairing houses, cars or household appliances, apartment cleaning, childcare, etc.

1) ontological category, proceeding from the fact that labor is the realized nature of a person as a person and a representative of a species, in some cases even a biological kingdom. Each person in his life has achieved something, created something (or maybe destroyed it). Modern science tries to measure these achievements;
2) epistemological category, revealing the relationship of labor self-knowledge to the work that needs to be carried out (labor itself is considered in terms of the meaning of human life). In this context, it is necessary to talk about what distinguishes one subject from another. There are two classes of individual properties:
- - primary individual properties are associated with age and sex and individual-typical (constitutional features, neurodynamic properties of the brain, features of the functional asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres);
- - secondary individual properties - the dynamics of psychophysical functions and the sphere of organic needs. Thus, in the XXI century. human individuality came into the science of labor;
3) social category. Of all the sciences that have “dissolved” the concept of labor in their subject matter, sociology has most developed a conceptual apparatus that allows a correct approach to the study of this most complex phenomenon;
4) cultural category, including the study of higher achievements national cultures and all world culture. Culturological consideration of labor is associated with such concepts as "culture and labor", "labor and its impact on cultural needs", "being and consciousness";
5) ethical category, expressed through the relations "moral assessment and self-assessment of the individual's own labor activity", "moral choice and self-design of labor technologies", "the problem of commensurability of values and duty in labor processes";
6) aesthetic category, emanating from the relationship: "design of being - chaos of needs", "beautiful and ugly", "sublime and base", "heroic and betrayal";
7) household category, expressed through the concepts of "workplace", "organization of living space", "distribution work roles"," urban and rural work ";
8) gerontological category, expressed through a range of concepts related to the work of the elderly and the care of the elderly;
9) crisis category. In this case, hostility, destructiveness of the environment are studied. The destructive side of life is studied by various sciences, in particular by crisisology. Labor can ennoble, but it is often also a punishment. This is especially evident in the present period, when a whole range of new requirements for employees began to arise on the part of employers;
10) valeological category. In this case, the importance of the mental and physical health of a person as a vital basis and foundation of labor processes is emphasized;
11) engineering category. Recently, sciences related to the design of labor processes have been developed;
12) innovation category. Working, a person not only changes the world around him, but also changes himself. The balance of these changes is a very fragile thing and extraordinarily complex;
13) ecological category. Labor was, is and will always be an ecologically significant phenomenon. It is through labor that a person is currently preparing a global ecological catastrophe. And it makes work different new category, which is the brainchild of increased possibilities;
14) risk category. Although risk arises from any kind of activity, it is only now that there is an awareness of the need for more detailed study and the creation of risk protection systems for labor itself and at the same time from labor;
15) synergistic category. The synergetics of labor is only being realized modern science, although labor is fundamentally synergistic. The synergetic nature of labor strictly correlates with its consistency;
16) ergonomic category. The term "ergonomics" was first proposed in 1921 by V. N. Myasishchev and V. M. Bekhterev. In 1949, a group of British scientists led by K. Marell organized the Ergonomic Society, after which the term began to become widespread;
17) military grade, presented through the concepts: "worker-warrior", "military skill", "home front workers", etc.;
18) management category. in the literature of the late 20th century. usually there are a number of stages.

First stage associated, as a rule, with the works of F.U. Taylor - the founder of "scientific management". He was the first to pose the problem of managing a person (employees) as a specific scientific discipline with its own categorical apparatus.

The main task of the Taylor system is "to ensure the maximum profit of the entrepreneur, combined with the maximum welfare for each worker."

Second phase associated with the concept of "human relations", which considers the factors of job satisfaction, leadership, cohesion (E. Mayo, F. Roethlisberg, A. Maslow, etc.). In the future, all this was developed in the concepts of "enrichment of labor", "humanistic challenge", where the psychological and economic factors of labor came to the fore, in the doctrine of "quality of working life", in the concepts of "humanization of labor" as an attempt to synthesize Taylorism and "human relations." A special place is also occupied by theories of labor motivation (A. Maslow, F. Herzberg, D. McGregor), etc.

In the 1970s in the United States, attention is focused on the concepts of "quality of life" (the term was introduced back in the 1950s by D. Riesman and J. Galbraith), "enrichment of labor" (the term was introduced in the 1960s by L. David), which are associated with theories of post-industrial society.

Third stage. In the West, especially in the USA, since the 1990s. a new direction is intensively developing, called "learning organizational systems". The fundamental ideas of this direction are drawn from cybernetics. The approach that considers the organization as a learning system that responds synergistically to various changes was partially proclaimed in P. Senge's book "The Fifth Discipline. The Art and Practice of the Self-Learning Organization".

The basis of the approach developed on this stage, is the transition from the understanding of labor in the traditional view to intellectual labor.

From an economic point of view work is a process of conscious, purposeful, creative, legitimate activity of people for the production of material and spiritual goods, designed to satisfy both personal and social needs. Its functions are shown in Fig. 1.1 and 1.2.

In the extensive literature devoted to various aspects of labor, the question of the totality of labor functions has not yet received comprehensive coverage. Political economists consider

Rice. 1.1.

Rice. 1.2.

predominantly the first and second functions (labor as a way to satisfy needs and a creator of material wealth). Philosophers and sociologists, depending on the problems of their research, one of the other three functions (labor as a means of forming a person, or as a force that improves society, or as the basis for the progress of freedom), while the concept of "function of labor" is usually not used. As examples of a few exceptions, one can point to the work of R. Gellner, in which two functions of labor are considered - labor as a means of life and labor as a creator and transformer of man.

Social aspects of labor. Subject area of ​​sociology of work

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Introduction

Based on the content of these formulations, the development of the subject of labor economics will be carried out in the following areas:

disclosure of the content and regulation of social and labor relations in the field of labor resources, the labor market and employment, providing for the creation of conditions for the effective functioning of labor resources;

economic directions in the field of improving the efficiency of labor activity (factors, conditions, reserves, indicators) in codification form, taking into account the transition period to market relations;

motivational and stimulating directions of prerequisites for effective, fruitful activity of labor resources in the conditions of market relations;

directions related to quantitative aspects, principles of labor process management, namely productivity, composition and number of employees and their payment.

In Russia, achievements in the field of labor economics are in most cases associated with the activities of the Research Institute of Labor of the Ministry of Labor and social protection RF, which has published a large number of guidelines on a very wide range of issues.

1. The essence and functions of labor, its social aspects. Subject area of ​​sociology of work

Thus, in the process of labor activity, not only goods are produced, services are provided, cultural values ​​are created, etc., but new needs appear with the requirements for their subsequent satisfaction (Fig. 1.1).

The sociological aspect of the study is to consider labor as a system of social relations, to determine its impact on society.

Rice. 1.1 The role of labor in the development of man and society

Rice. 1.2 Social and labor relations in the world of work

Subject sociology labor are the structure and mechanism of social and labor relations, as well as social processes and phenomena in the world of work.

Tasks sociology labor consist in:

study and optimization of the social structure of society, labor organization (team);

analysis of the labor market as a regulator of optimal and rational mobility of labor resources;

finding ways to optimally realize the labor potential of a modern worker;

the optimal combination of moral and material incentives and the improvement of attitudes towards work in market conditions;

strengthening social control and combating various kinds of deviations from the generally accepted moral principles and norms in the sphere of work;

studying the causes and developing a system of measures to prevent and resolve labor conflicts;

creating a system of social guarantees that protect workers in society, labor organization, etc.

To collect and analyze information in the sociology of labor, sociological methods are widely used, which manifest themselves in:

achieved knowledge about the subject of research (understanding the essence of labor and relations in the sphere of labor);

the process of fact gathering methods;

way to make a conclusion, i.e. formulate conclusions about causal relationships between phenomena.

2. Structure and reproduction of the population and labor resources

The state and development of a society will largely be determined by the number and composition of its population. Under population understood scoop P ness crowded, living on certain territories - area, city, R e gyone, country .

Before considering the basic concepts of various areas of study of labor resources, it is advisable to look at the composition and structure of the population and the change in its size.

Underreproduction population understood process continuous renewal generations of people V result interactions give birth O sti And mortality . Distinguishthreetypereproductionpopulation:

expanded reproduction is characterized by an excess of the number of births over the number of deaths;

simple reproduction - in this case there is no increase, since the number of births is equal to the number of deaths;

narrowed - mortality exceeds the birth rate, there is an absolute reduction in the population.

The reproduction of the population has not only demographic, but also economic and social aspects. It determines the formation of labor resources, the development of territories, the state of productive forces, the development of social infrastructure, etc.

fertility And mortality are calculated per 1000 people (in ppm) and measured using coefficient systems and tables. The difference between the number of births and deaths with a positive result is called natural growth population.

And

where K R and K C are the birth and death rates, respectively;

R - number of births per year;

C is the number of deaths per year;

N C - average annual population.

The average annual population is determined for the middle of the year as the arithmetic average of the population data at the beginning and end of the year, or by adding half of its growth to the initial population.

Table 1. number,compoundAndindicatorsnaturalmovementspopulationRussia

3. The structure of the formation of labor resources

Table 3

MediumdurationlifeAndageexitonretirement(years)

4. Organizational Foundations wages

increasing the interest of each employee in identifying and using the reserves of the efficiency of their work, while excluding the possibility of obtaining unearned funds;

eliminating cases of equalization in wages, achieving a direct dependence of wages on the results of work, both individual and collective;

Since there is a specificity in the organization of wages at the lower levels of management, its organizational prerequisites should be as shown in Fig. 4.3.

Conclusion

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Categorical ideas about labor and their modern interpretation

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Social aspects of labor. Subject area of sociology of work

1. The essence and functions of labor, its social aspects. Subject area of sociology of work

Thus, in the process of labor activity, not only goods are produced, services are provided, cultural values are created, etc., but new needs appear with the requirements for their subsequent satisfaction (Fig. 1.1).

**Underreproduction population understood process continuous renewal generations of people V result interactions give birth O sti And mortality . Distinguishthreetypereproductionpopulation**: