... How make snot, cripple the circulatory system, experiencing various means hearing loss, cripples the organs of the digestive tract, experiencing various methods gastric emptying, gas from the rectum, involuntary urination and untimely bleeding from the uterus, pain in the ovaries, headaches, eversion of the eyes, while declaring that he wants to acquire a psychic diploma, and for this he needs the money that he wants to get from me, breeds hip bones and declares I’m divorcing you for money, cuts out your eyes and declares you won’t see the money, hits you on the head, and declares that he will kill you with psychic techniques if he doesn’t get the desired amount of money to buy a psychic diploma. I can't buy him a diploma like that. Please help, he sits in my head, making himself How he declares an apartment with all conveniences and with a remote control for my brain, using which he seeks to establish relations with his girlfriend - also possessing psychic abilities but an alcoholic, who, with the help of psychic abilities, being under the influence of alcohol, rapes children of a ballet school so that her daughter becomes famous ballerina in her failed another 9 years. It was at the ballet school that my son met the mother of this ballerina - a failed economist, graduates of the paid department University of Economics, who did not work in her specialty and demanded a career as a psychic for herself through extortion, damage to the ovaries of all the mothers of the children of the ballet school, which she did at night every day, offering treatment methods in the morning. There are several other such psychics in contact with her who dream of diplomas for the purpose of extortion, and use psychic abilities to cripple me, my family, my children and nephews, not letting me out, How they say laying me in a crypt, How they say, pulling me under the water and raping me with a gag - How they say sending me to heaven on what-That aircraft, How they talk with a kiss to deprive me of sleep, food, relationships with people and in particular with those who have medical degrees, while How myself possessed ability to heal people and without realizing it saved the life of a little boy - the son of a member of the French government, who, by pure chance, is my nephew. Please help me get rid of that semi-psychic who got into my head and made an apartment there with all the amenities, waiting for the right moment to kill me, declaring that he will do it when I receive the amount of money accrued to me but not paid, which he is this the psychic himself saw in my future, declaring that he has the ability to pull cars, houses, money out of the human penis to satisfy his sexual needs, which he wants to satisfy with his chosen one, mentioned earlier, the mother of a failed ballerina, who beats all ballerina children in a spiritual way in a performance at the opera house, striking on the head, girls dancing in a group with her daughter, and boys, masturbating the genitals at night so that they do not take the main roles that this lady reserved for her daughter, inflicting severe agony on the mothers of the boys, stretching the wombs and doing How she calls it a fucking dog, i.e. puts the child under the mother, turned into a dog, which, excuse me, fucks the child. Mothers become angry and aggressive and the pain in the uterus does not stop for several days, which affects the family relations of mothers with fathers who beat the mothers of other children right in the ballet school, and the children themselves. fathers are turned into cows, pigs, ducks hooked to a post by the paw, eyes are cut out, ears are cut off, they are turned into horses declaring I will ride on you, they are turned into a bank door from which money falls out, they are turned into How they say, in a cash cow, saying I will milk you, and you will provide me with my whole life, and your children will regularly unfasten me as much as I need to live comfortably without working. Help get rid of that semi-psychic who does all this while in my body, How he declares, reduced to the size of an inch, that you are free to move around my body, disfiguring all the organs in turn, How he declares experimenting to become a certified psychic and disfiguring organs to lead people into the forests, or take them away from relatives, and killing by disfiguring organs to extort all the money that a person has, even if there is no money, then extort the money that this psychic saw in in the past, not realizing that this money has already been spent, and in those places where they put it, it has long been gone and not even seeing that it was transferred, declaring that these are not poor people, and I demand to give him all the money that he saw with extrasensory techniques, being at the same time in ecstasy from the promised sexual intercourse with an accomplice of these crimes, a woman named Tatyana, the mother of a failed ballerina, the daughter of a psychic rapist, because through psychic abilities Tatyana rapes girls 8-9 years old, so that they would not dance in ballets, in those roles on which the teacher put them without putting the daughter of this woman - the partner of the one who made the apartment in my body, first in the stomach, and then moved it to the brain so that it would be easier to disfigure the organs, including the eyes, the muscular system, the circulatory system, urination, genital bodily functions, declaring I will make a prostitute out of you, forcing you to earn money on the panel and give it to me, while How I am already 38 years old, and of course I will not turn out to be a prostitute, because I have a husband and a child whom I have not been able to see for 2 years, because this schizophrenic psychic wants me to be interrupted away from home in order to move him to another city, because it is in the city where my child lives, he killed a man with psychic techniques, extorting money along with his partner, who became the reason for the interference in my sexual functions, demanding money and satisfaction of her sexual needs from my friends, having ideas that friends rich and noble people, in order to ensure her a prosperous future and the purchase of a psychic diploma abroad, where the one who made an apartment in my body dreams of getting, and is waiting, How he says a convenient moment, after which he threatens to take me to the next world, and live instead of me at the expense of my husband, stealing and transporting our child. The child is under the supervision of an elderly mother, and is in constant fear that Tatyana and this Alexander will steal him, because every night Tatyana talks to him with psychic techniques demanding payment for sexual services, because she masturbates the child's genitals, declaring that she will stop when she they will give money to buy a psychic diploma and travel abroad. I don't have that kind of money and never will. Please help me take out the one who made an apartment in my body in order to pay for sex with my girlfriend Tatyana, because for 2 years now I have not been able to get rid of this semi-psychic who uses me for his experiments on the destruction of organs that he will destroy - but with a diploma, for which he extorts money, destroying the organs in my body in turn, and the eyes, and the genitals, and the digestive organs, and cuts off the legs, and cuts off the legs, and moves the eyes, declaring that he turns me into various animals - a cow, a pig, a goose, a mouse, a duck and a pushpin, which he presses into a post, into a nail, into a saw, into a grave worm, puts me in a coffin in which worms eat me, saws me with a saw, rapes me with a stick, strangles me with a noose - a noose , hits the butt on the head, inserts a knife between the legs, declaring that he blows me away, creates spinning islands in the head, in the uterus, declaring that it is so easy for him to fall asleep when he imagines himself small in my body, so that I How he declares not to lose. Help get rid of this person, because dozens of families with small children are suffering without even knowing that their Saint Tatyana is in fact the rapist who harms their organs, and in the morning offers treatment for the same organs, without having any knowledge about treatment, but only demanding a psychic diploma for herself and a career as a ballerina for her daughter, who herself is raping girls - classmates with a stick, entering into spiritual contact with her mother, attacking her own classmates, declaring that she wants to make them blazing eyes, that would they run poop to the bathroom during class, and didn't get roles in...

The profession of "tester" today is one of the most sought after. And if programming is taught in higher educational institutions, then testing - unfortunately, no.

But testing can be learned with some effort. Of course, if you have chosen this direction of development for yourself.

How to do this, what a tester should know and what qualities a tester should have, we asked a specialist in the field of test management .

Boris has been involved in testing since 2001 and during his time at Luxoft has participated in more than 16 successful projects for various customers as a tester, test designer, test manager.

Why did you start testing?
Before joining Luxoft, I was a task manager. I had to test for the compliance of the development with the requirements I wrote. So I had some testing experience before Luxoft. But it was rather a kind of spontaneous testing, I simply did not know many things. Yes, and earlier we (in the Soviet Union) did not have the concept of independent testing, and in Russia it did not appear immediately. In 2001, having come to Luxoft, I began to do testing, largely by the will of circumstances, I liked it. And so it remained in testing.

How and where did you learn about testing?
Two decades of experience in compliance testing is not bad. But at the same time, he did not study testing. Actually at that time they did not teach. Mastered everything only own experience and experience of colleagues. I started learning testing at Luxoft. Many thanks to the teachers, especially . They gave both theoretical and practical knowledge, recommended literature. I read books on testing (I would especially single out the book by S. Kaner, D. Falk, E.K. Nguyen “Testing software- read as a bestseller).

Is it possible to become a qualified tester only through self-learning?
No, I don't think so. You can study on your own theoretical basis testing. But without practice, it is dead knowledge. And practice is given only by work in projects, at least educational ones. And it is very important that there is an experienced coach (mentor, curator) who will check, prompt and guide.

Often novice testers use such programs with intentionally made mistakes for self-learning purposes. In your opinion, is this enough? Is it possible to learn how to test software this way?
No you can not. You can learn to find errors in the program yourself, but this does not mean “becoming a tester”. To become a qualified tester, one must understand the business process for which the product being tested is used. You also need to master the test design - according to books, without practice, you will not do this. The right way, in my opinion, such: books, training with an experienced trainer, independent work under supervision (supervision).

What knowledge should a tester have?
This is a very broad question. I will answer shortly enough. It is possible, I believe, to conditionally divide the necessary knowledge into general and special. General is a development methodology software systems; testing methodology in various models developments; knowledge of database torii; Knowledge of the basics of test automation; knowledge of bug tracking systems; knowledge of the basics of test management; be at least a qualified computer user. Special knowledge - depends on the specifics, features of the project: knowledge of various operating systems, knowledge of the tools used.
Also, the tester should have a good knowledge of the development process (including the testing process) used in his organization.

What are the requirements for a tester in your industry?
In addition to general and specialized knowledge, perhaps even in the first place, an analytical mindset is needed. According to the requirements and the information that can be obtained from the analyst, the tester must have a good idea of ​​the business process, must imagine how the end user will work with the tested product (I'm talking about a qualified tester, of course). If a person is only able to simply check the performance of the program when entering values ​​into the form fields, then this is still not a tester, even if he finds all the defects in the form. The tester must be able (and be ready) to quickly learn new tools. The tester should be able to express his thoughts in writing, describe problems. Must be communicative and able to work in a team. And responsible - the flaws of the programmer can be found by the tester, the flaws of the tester - only the customer. The tester should be capable of fairly monotonous, routine work. Critical thinking is highly encouraged. And it's important to be able to take criticism.

Share interesting developments with "novice" testers, give examples from personal practice.
Here you can either write a lot or write briefly. I prefer the latter J. As a rule, our beginners do not have testing experience. In the best case, experience in maintaining or implementing systems (and, as a result, experience in describing problems). Therefore, we start by reading the literature on testing, studying the company's regulations. Along the way - trainings from (if they are in, if not, it happens that I myself conduct them for my own). Then work in educational project(if there is such an opportunity - this does not always happen). Then work as an understudy for a more experienced tester. Very good result it turns out when a beginner compiles a summary table of the defects he found and missed, and then in the same table writes his assessment of the reasons why he missed the defect (for each missed defect).

The most complete list of theoretical knowledge and practical skills of a clinical (medical) psychologist can be gleaned from the qualification characteristics of a specialist in this field. In accordance with the order of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation No. 391 of November 26, 1996, a medical psychologist must have the following knowledge and skills:

Theoretical knowledge

Psychology and its significance for medicine: the subject, tasks and interdisciplinary connections of medical psychology, the history of the formation of medical psychology as a field of psychological science; medical psychology as a profession; main sections of medical psychology.

The main theoretical and methodological problems of medical psychology: brain and psyche, psychosomatic and somatopsychic correlations. Biological and social correlations, the problem of norm and pathology, genetic and acquired, hereditary and personal-environmental, development and decay of the psyche, organic and functional, conscious and unconscious, adaptation and maladaptation, deficit and adaptive.

Systems approach as a theoretical basis for understanding the psychological structure of the disease, restorative treatment and rehabilitation of patients.

Basic (fundamental) medical concepts: etiology, pathogenesis and sanogenesis, symptom, syndrome, clinical diagnosis, functional (multidimensional or multiaxial) diagnosis.

Related knowledge: fundamentals of general and private psychiatry, fundamentals of neurology, the doctrine of borderline mental disorders, self-destructive behavior, fundamentals of psychophysiology and psychopharmacology.

Psychological (psychogenic) factors in the etiology, pathogenesis and pathoplasty of mental and psychosomatic disorders, the concept of pre-illness, impaired mental adaptation, social stress disorders, crisis conditions.

Classification of methods of medical psychology, psychological diagnostics as a tool for purposeful study of personality, methods of psychological diagnostics in the clinic, computer psychodiagnostics, psychological correction.

The concept of psychological diagnosis, functional diagnosis as a result of the integration of the clinical, psychological and social aspects of the disease, the concept of psychological contact.

The main categories of medical psychology: mental activity, perception, attention, memory, thinking, intellect, emotions, will, temperament, character, personality, motivation, needs, stress, frustration, consciousness and self-awareness, self-esteem, conflict, crisis, psychogenesis, psychological protection, coping, alexithymia.

Theory of experiment, concepts of standardized and non-standardized methods, theory and classification of tests, basic psychometric concepts (validity, reliability, standardization, norm, etc.).

Fundamentals of Clinical Neuropsychology: systemic mechanisms of the brain in the organization of higher mental functions, processes and states, functional specialization of the hemispheres - basic concepts and practice, correlations of the general cerebral and local in neuropsychology, nosological specifics of violations of higher mental functions, specifics of neuropsychological research in childhood; main neuropsychological syndromes and methods of their diagnostics.

The concept of pathopsychology: ratio of qualitative and quantitative approaches in the analysis of psychodiagnostic data, pathopsychological phenomenology, regularities and structural features of disorders of cognitive processes, properties and conditions caused by a disease, nosological and syndromological specificity of pathopsychological phenomenology, differential diagnostic and expert significance of a pathopsychological experiment, pathopsychological studies in assessing the dynamics of treatment .

Age aspects of psychological disorders: age-related features of psychological disorders in various diseases, mental development of an abnormal child, childhood autism, the problem of dysontogenesis and mental retardation, psychological anomalies of adolescence, features of childhood and adolescent forms of pathological response, psychological aspects of mental infantilism, psychological problems of geriatrics and gerontology.

Teaching about character: the concept of accentuation and psychopathy, classification of character accentuations, diagnostic methods.

The doctrine of personality: basic concepts of personality in domestic and foreign psychology, diagnostic methods, the concept of personality defense mechanisms, personality and illness.

Basic concepts of psychosomatic relationships. Psychosomatic and somatopsychic. Internal picture of the disease and attitude to the disease, methodology and research methods, nosological specificity of psychological phenomena and the internal picture of the disease. Theoretical and methodological aspects, methods of psychological diagnostics in various types of expertise.

Theoretical, methodological and methodical approaches in solving the problems of psychoprophylaxis and psychohygiene, the concept of mass research, psychological screening, risk factors, mental maladjustment and illness.

Rehabilitation approach in medicine: concept, concepts, basic principles, forms and methods.

Psychology of extreme and crisis states, the concept of traumatic stress, social frustration and social stress disorders.

Basic principles of psychological support of the treatment process: organization of the psychotherapeutic environment in the medical units. Relationships doctor-patient, psychologist-doctor-treatment office, etc.

Psychological aspects of drug and non-drug therapy, placebo effect, psychological problems of preparing patients for surgery, prosthetics, psychological problems of chronically ill, disabled and dying.

Medical and psychological aspects of social behavior: communication, role behavior, interaction in groups, social normativity, etc.

Features of the work of medical psychologists in stationary, outpatient and preventive institutions of various types, psychological counseling, professional selection, career guidance.

Psychological foundations of psychotherapy, restorative education and rehabilitation.

Basic psychotherapeutic theories: psychodynamic, behavioral, existential-humanistic; personality-oriented psychotherapy; medical and psychological models of psychotherapy; main forms of psychotherapy: individual group, family, environment therapy, psychotherapeutic community, sociotherapy; mechanisms of therapeutic action of psychotherapy; nosological specificity and age aspects of psychotherapy and psychological counseling; psychological problems of non-verbal methods of psychotherapy: music therapy, choreotherapy, art therapy, etc.

Psychotherapy and psychological counseling in crisis situations.

Legal aspects activities of medical psychologists.

Deontological aspects behavior of a medical psychologist.

Practical skills

The practical skills and abilities of a medical psychologist should provide a qualified professional solution to problems in the field of psychodiagnostics (including expert), psychocorrection and psychological counseling.

In the field of psychodiagnostics:

The ability to conduct a psychological examination, taking into account nosological and age specifics, as well as in connection with the tasks of medical and psychological examination; creation of the necessary psychological contact and adequate current control of psychological distance; planning and organization of research; selection of an adequate methodological apparatus; the ability to carry out a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the results of the study in connection with various goals: differential diagnosis, analysis of the severity of the condition, evaluation of the effectiveness of the therapy, etc., possession of the main interpretive schemes and approaches, adequate presentation of the available data in the psychodiagnostic report, possession of the main clinical and psychological methods (psychological conversation, collection of psychological anamnesis, psychological analysis of biography, natural experiment);

Possession of the main experimental psychological methods aimed at studying mental functions, processes and states: perception, attention, memory, thinking, intellect, emotional-volitional sphere, temperament, character, personality, motivational characteristics and needs, self-awareness and interpersonal relationships;

Possession of the basic techniques of neuropsychological research (methods for assessing the state of gnosis, praxis, speech functions, etc.);

Basic knowledge of computer diagnostics.

In the field of psychological counseling and the use of psycho-corrective methods:

The use of the main methods of psychological correction (individual, family, group) in working with patients and psychological counseling, taking into account nosological and age specifics;

Possession of methods of individual, group and family counseling of healthy people, taking into account age specifics in connection with the tasks of psychoprophylaxis;

Possession of the basic techniques of restorative education;

Possession of approaches to the organization of the psychotherapeutic environment and the psychotherapeutic community;

- Possession of the skills to conduct personally and professionally oriented trainings.

Thus, a clinical psychologist can help both sick and healthy people in solving psychological problems.

Ethics in clinical psychology. http://bookap.info/genpsy/clinpsy/gl23.shtm

The professional activity of a clinical psychologist is integrated into all major areas of medical science and practice. The origins of clinical psychology and its development as a specialty are inextricably linked with medicine, especially psychiatry and psychotherapy. Therefore, turning to the ethical aspects of this relatively young specialty, one cannot help but dwell on modern models of medical ethics.

For more than 25 centuries, various moral principles and rules have been formed in European culture, which have accompanied the centuries-old existence of medicine. Various moral regulators that functioned at different stages of the development of society - religious, cultural, ethnic, socio-economic - influenced the formation of ethical models in medicine as well. Considering all the variety of medical moral experience, 4 coexisting models can be distinguished:

1. Model of Hippocrates (principle "do no harm").

2. Model of Paracelsus (principle "do good").

3. Deontological model (principle of "observance of duty").

4. Bioethics (the principle of "respect for the rights and dignity of the individual").

The historical features and logical foundations of each of the models determined the formation of those moral principles that today constitute the value-normative content of modern biomedical ethics.

Hippocratic model. The first form of medical ethics was the moral principles of healing Hippocrates (460-377 BC), set forth by him in the "Oath", as well as in the books "On the Law", "On Doctors", "On Decent Behavior", " Instructions", etc. In ancient cultures - Babylonian, Egyptian, Jewish, Persian, Indian, Greek - the ability to heal testified to the "divine" chosenness and determined the elite, as a rule, priestly position in society. It is believed that Hippocrates was the son of one of the priests of the god Asclepius - Heraclid, who gave him his initial medical education. The formation of secular medicine in ancient Greece is associated with the principles of democracy of city-states, and the consecrated rights of healing priests inevitably gave way to moral professional guarantees and obligations of doctors to the suffering. In addition, the ethics of Hippocrates, which is well illustrated by the "Oath", was caused by the need to dissociate themselves from lone doctors, various charlatans, of which there were many in those days, and to ensure public confidence in doctors of a particular school or corporation of Asclepiads.

The practical attitude of a doctor to a sick and healthy person, initially focused on care, help, support, is the main feature of professional medical ethics. That part of medical ethics, which considers the problem of the relationship between the doctor and the patient from the point of view of social guarantees and professional obligations of the medical community, can be called the "Hippocratic model". It was about obligations to teachers, colleagues and students, about guarantees of non-harm ("I will direct the regimen of patients to their benefit in accordance with my strength and my understanding, refraining from any harm and injustice"), providing assistance, showing respect, about a negative attitude to murder and euthanasia ("I will not give any lethal agent asked of me and will not show the way for such a plan"), abortion ("I will not give any woman an abortion pessary"), the refusal of intimate relations with patients ("In whatever I didn’t enter the house, I will enter there for the benefit of the patient, being far from everything intentional, unrighteous and pernicious, especially from love affairs with women and men, free and slaves”, “The doctor has a lot of relations with the sick: after all, they put themselves at the disposal doctors, and doctors at all times deal with women, with girls and with property of a very high price, therefore, in relation to all this, the doctor must be abstemious"), about medical secrecy ("Whatever the treatment - and also without treatment I I have not heard about human life from what should never be divulged, I will keep silent about that, considering such things a secret").

Fundamental among the listed principles for the Hippocratic model is the principle of "do no harm", which focuses on the civil creed of the medical class. This principle forms the initial professional guarantee, which can be considered as a condition and basis for its recognition by society as a whole and by each person separately, who trusts the doctor with his health and life. Hippocrates paid great attention to the image of a doctor, not only moral, but also external (clothing, neatness) respectability, which was associated with the need to build confidence in those who turn to the medical caste during the transition from priestly to secular medicine. Priests, throughout the history of the development of religion, acquired the status of those close to the gods, it was believed that they received wisdom and instructions, knowledge and skills from them. Physicians, who had overcome the temple, had to acquire and possess such qualities that would contribute to the formation of the image of the entire medical professional community of that time. Hippocrates defined these qualities, starting from the generalized values ​​of ancient Greece. The book "On Decent Behavior" most fully reflects the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe ideal of a doctor that developed in the depths of medical schools in the era of the Greek "enlightenment": "What are they appearance, are such in reality: the physician-philosopher is equal to God.

Hippocrates defined the general rules for the interaction of a doctor with a patient, while the emphasis was on the behavior of the doctor at the patient's bedside. When in contact with the patient, such a form of communication was offered that would help the patient's orientation towards recovery: "An obvious and great proof of the existence of art will be if someone, establishing the correct treatment, does not stop encouraging the sick so that they are not too worried in spirit, trying to bring time closer to themselves convalescence."

An important and ethically complex issue was the issue of remuneration of a doctor for the assistance and treatment provided. In the conditions of priestly medicine, gifts and offerings were given not to the priest himself, but to the temple in which he served. In the transition to secular medicine, when the doctor is directly provided with a fee, appropriate rules were needed that did not violate the general architectonics of medical ethics: "It is better to reproach the saved than rob those in danger in advance."

Paracelsus model. The second historical form of medical ethics was the understanding of the relationship between the doctor and the patient, which developed in the Middle Ages. Paracelsus (1493-1541) succeeded in expressing it especially clearly. This form of medical ethics, in which the moral relationship with the patient is understood as part of the doctor's strategy of therapeutic behavior. If the Hippocratic model wins the social trust of the patient's personality, then the "Paracelsian model" is taking into account the individual characteristics of the individual, recognizing the depth of her spiritual contacts with the doctor and the inclusion of these contacts in the treatment process. "In Paracelsus we see the forefather not only in the field of chemical drugs, but also in the field of empirical mental treatment" (Jung). Within the boundaries of the "Paracelsian model", paternalism is fully developed as a type of relationship between a doctor and a patient. Medical culture uses the Latin concept of pater - "father", extended by Christianity not only to the priest, but also to God. The meaning of the word "father" in paternalism fixes that the "model" of relations between the doctor and the patient is not only blood relations, which are characterized by positive psycho-emotional attachments and social and moral responsibility, but also the "healing", "divinity" of the very contact between the doctor and the patient . It is not surprising that the main moral principle that is formed within the boundaries of this model is the principle of "do good", good, or "do love", beneficence, mercy. Medicine is the organized exercise of goodness. Paracelsus wrote: "The strength of the doctor is in his heart, his work must be guided by God and illuminated by natural light and experience; the most important basis of medicine is love." Under the influence of Christian anthropology, Paracelsus considered the physical body of a person "only as a house in which the true man, the builder of this house, lives." It is believed that the Christian understanding of the soul contributed to the development of suggestive therapy, which was actively used by the outstanding physician of the 16th century. Cardano, considering it as a necessary and effective component of any therapeutic effect. Cardano understood the role of the trust factor and argued that the success of treatment is largely determined by the patient's faith in the doctor: "He who believes more, heals better." The importance of a trusting relationship between a doctor and a patient was repeatedly emphasized by prominent doctors of the past, as early as the 8th century. Abul-Faraj wrote: "There are three of us - you, the disease and I; if you are with the disease, there will be two of you, I will remain alone - you will overcome me; if you are with me, there will be two of us, the disease will remain one - we we will overcome it."

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. Freud desacralized paternalism, stating the libidinal nature of the relationship between doctor and patient. His concepts of transference and countertransference are a means of theoretical understanding of the complex interpersonal relationship between doctor and patient in psychotherapeutic practice. Freud believed that any psychotherapist, and the activity of a doctor of any specialty includes a psychotherapeutic component, "should be impeccable, especially in moral terms." Freud wrote not only about “irreproachability” as a theoretically verified strategy of therapeutic behavior based on the nature of therapeutic activity, but also about “impeccability” as an almost mechanical accuracy of compliance of the doctor’s behavior with one or another standard of ethical requirements.

deontological model. For the first time, the term "deontology" ("deontos" - due, "logos" - teaching) was introduced by the English philosopher Bentham (1748-1832), denoting by this concept the science of duty, moral obligation, moral perfection and impeccability. Deontology is especially important in those professional activities where complex interpersonal mutual influences and responsible interactions are widely used. In medicine, this is the compliance of the doctor's behavior with certain ethical standards. This is the deontological level of medical ethics, or "deontological model", based on the principle of "observance of duty". The basis of deontology is the attitude towards the patient in the way that one would like to be treated in a similar situation. The deep essence of the deontology of healing is revealed by the symbolic statement of the Dutch doctor of the 17th century. van Toul-Psi: "Shining to others, I burn myself."

The term "deontology" was introduced into Soviet medical science in the 1940s. Petrov to designate a real-life area of ​​medical practice - medical ethics - which was "abolished" in Russia after the 1917 revolution for its connection with religious culture. The deontological model of medical ethics is a set of "proper" rules (comparison, compliance with the "proper" and the evaluation of actions not only by results, but also by thoughts), corresponding to a particular area of ​​medical practice. Deontology includes issues of compliance with medical secrecy, measures of responsibility for the life and health of patients, problems of relationships in the medical community, relationships with patients and their relatives. Thus, an example of this model is the rules regarding intimate relationships between a doctor and a patient, developed by the Committee on Ethical and legal matters at the American Medical Association (JAMA, 1992, no. 2):

Intimate contacts between doctor and patient that occur during the period of treatment are immoral;

An intimate relationship with a former patient may be considered unethical in certain situations;

The issue of intimacy between physician and patient should be included in the training of all health professionals;

Physicians should certainly report violations of medical ethics by their colleagues.

To "observe duty" means to fulfill certain requirements. An improper act is one that contradicts the requirements of the medical community, society, one's own will and mind for a doctor. When the rules of conduct are open and clearly stated for each medical specialty, the principle of "doing duty" does not recognize excuses for avoiding doing it. The idea of ​​duty is the determining, necessary and sufficient basis for the doctor's actions. If a person is able to act on the unconditional requirement of "duty", then such a person corresponds to his chosen profession, if not, then he must leave this professional community.

Sets of "well-defined rules of conduct" have been developed for virtually every medical specialty and provide a list and description of these rules for all medical fields. By the middle of the XX century. medical deontology becomes international - international documents appear that regulate the behavior of a doctor: the Geneva Declaration (1948), the International Code of Medical Ethics (London, 1949), the Helsinki Declaration (1964), the Tokyo Declaration (1975), etc.

Bioethics. In the 60-70s. 20th century a new model of medical ethics is being formed, which considers medicine in the context of human rights. The term "bioethics" (ethics of life), which was proposed by Van Renseller Potter in 1969, which is described as "the systematic study of human behavior in the field of life and health sciences, to the extent that this behavior is considered in the light of moral values ​​and principles ". Main moral principle bioethics becomes the principle of "respect for the rights and dignity of the individual." Under the influence of this principle, the solution of the "basic issue" of medical ethics - the question of the relationship between the doctor and the patient - is changing. Today, the question of the participation of the patient in making a medical decision is acute. This far from "secondary" participation takes shape in new types of relationship between the doctor and the patient - informational, deliberative, interpretive types are, in their own way, a form of protecting the rights and dignity of a person. In modern medicine, they discuss not only helping the patient, but also the possibility of controlling the processes of pathology, conception and dying, with very problematic physical and metaphysical (moral) consequences for the human population as a whole. Medicine, working today at the molecular level, is becoming more "predictive". Dosset (French immunologist and geneticist) believes that predictive medicine "will help to make a person's life long, happy and devoid of disease." Only one "but" stands in the way of this bright prospect: "a person or a group of persons driven by a thirst for power and often infected with a totalitarian ideology." Predictive medicine can also be defined as subjectless, impersonal, that is, capable of diagnosing without subjective indicators, complaints and the patient. And this is really a real and unprecedented lever of control and power over both the individual human organism and the human population as a whole.

Bioethics is a modern form of traditional professional biomedical ethics, in which the regulation of human relations is subordinated to the super-task of preserving the life of the human race. The regulation of relations with the super-task of saving life is directly related to the very essence and purpose of morality in general. Today, the "ethical" is becoming a form of defense of the "natural-biological" from the excessive claims of culture to its natural foundations. Bioethics (ethics of life) as a specific form of "ethical" arises from the need of nature to protect itself from the power of culture in the face of its extreme claims to transform and change the "natural-biological".

Since the 60-70s. In the 20th century, as an alternative to paternalism, an autonomous model is becoming more widespread, when the patient reserves the right to make decisions related to his health and medical treatment. In this case, the doctor and patient jointly develop a strategy and methods of treatment. The physician applies his or her medical experience and provides clarification regarding treatment prognosis, including the alternative of no treatment; the patient, knowing his goals and values, determines the option that best suits his interests and plans for the future. Thus, instead of the paternalistic model of protecting and saving the patient's life, the principle of the patient's well-being, which is implemented by the doctrine of informed consent, is now coming to the fore - the patient's self-determination depends on the degree of his awareness. The doctor is obliged to provide the patient not only with all the information of interest to him, but also with that which, due to his incompetence, the patient may not be aware of. At the same time, the patient's decisions are voluntary and correspond to his own values. From this follows the moral core of the relationship "doctor-patient" in bioethics - the principle of respect for the individual. The question of determining the beginning and end of life is also of great importance. The conflict of "rights", "principles", "values", and in fact of human lives and the fate of culture is a reality modern society. The conflict between the "right of the fetus to life" and "the right of a woman to have an abortion", or the legal consciousness of the patient, rising to the realization of the "right to a dignified death", which conflicts with the doctor's right to perform not only professional rule"Do not harm", but the commandment - "Thou shalt not kill." With regard to abortion as the destruction of what can become a person, there are three moral positions: conservative - abortion is always immoral and can only be allowed if a woman's life is threatened; liberal - moderate - the absolute right of a woman to have an abortion, regardless of the age of the fetus and moderate - the justification of abortion before a certain development of the embryo (until the stage of the developing fetus - 12 weeks, when the brain tissue becomes electrically active).

Brain activity also serves as a criterion for death. Modern intensive care is able to support the life of patients who are not capable of either spontaneous breathing or thought processes. Therefore, there are new moral problems associated with patients who are on the verge of life and death. The question of euthanasia usually arises when the patient has irreversibly lost consciousness; dying, experiences intense unbearable suffering, forcing physicians to maintain the patient in a semi-conscious state or when the newborn has anatomical and physiological defects that are incompatible with life. There is a wide range of opinions: from the full legalization of the doctor's right to terminate the patient's life with his consent ("active euthanasia"), to the complete rejection of euthanasia as an act contrary to human morality. There is a variant of the so-called "passive euthanasia", when the principle of non-treatment is used, which excludes the act of killing itself (turning off artificial systems that ensure life, stopping the administration of drugs, etc.).

The ethical issues of abortion and euthanasia are related to the moral aspects of reproduction and transplantation. Modern technology of reproduction of life determines qualitatively new forms of relationships between spouses, parents and children, biological and social parents. Transplantology opens up new problems of determining the line between life and death due to the moral alternative of saving the life of the recipient and the responsibility for the possible murder of a donor doomed to death.

In the 90s. 20th century bioethics has become a concept that includes the whole set of social and ethical problems of modern medicine, among which one of the leading problems is the social protection of the human right not only to self-determination, but also to life. Bioethics plays an important role in shaping society's respect for human rights.

Yudin believes that "bioethics should be understood not only as a field of knowledge, but also as an emerging social institution of modern society" . A specific form of resolving possible contradictions in the field of biomedicine is bioethical public organizations (ethical committees), which unite physicians, lawyers, bioethicists, priests, etc., providing the development of recommendations on specific problematic situations of biomedical activity, whether it be its theoretical or practical side. .

Historical and logical analysis of the development of the ethics of healing leads to the following conclusion. The modern form of medical ethics is biomedical ethics, which now operates in the mode of all four historical models - the Hippocratic and Paracelsian models, the deontological model and bioethics. The connection between scientific and practical activity and morality is one of the conditions for the existence and survival of modern civilization.

Modern clinical psychology in all its sections is based on general medical ethical principles. At the same time, a clinical psychologist in his work faces specific ethical issues.

Firstly, this is the question of the need to inform the subject about the goals and content of the psychological examination before it is carried out. The clinical psychologist is obliged to maintain confidentiality when discussing the results of the study, to obtain the consent of the patient if it is expedient to familiarize himself with the results of other specialists, in addition to the attending physician, to show correctness when conducting the study or in case of refusal of the latter.

Secondly, the rule of "limits" (the limit as the limit of acceptable behavior) must be respected. Given the specifics of interpersonal interaction between a clinical psychologist and a patient, it is necessary to clearly define the professional boundaries of communication during psychological counseling and during psychotherapeutic meetings, since "crossing" the boundary can lead to the destruction of the treatment process and harm the patient. The range of violation of the boundaries of professional interaction is very wide: from sexual contact with the patient to advice, recommendations and questions that go beyond the scope of therapeutic contact. For example, during the reception, the patient's condition worsened, he was provided with the necessary medical care. Worried about what happened, the psychologist calls him at home in the evening to find out about his health. The patient considered this a violation of "borders" and an encroachment on his autonomy (autonomy is defined as "personal freedom" or as "the principle of free will"). However, under certain circumstances, "violation of boundaries" can be constructive, so it is important to take into account the context of the interaction. So, the patient, entering the office of a clinical psychologist and reporting the death of her son, bends over to the chest of the psychologist, and the latter responds to this impulse of hers, thereby expressing sympathy for the grief of the patient. Failure to show empathic empathy in such situations is more likely to alienate the patient and interrupt interpersonal interaction. "Breach of boundaries" also occurs when the patient is attempted to be used for personal purposes of a non-sexual nature.

Thirdly, difficult ethical issue may be the formation of the patient's emotional attachment to the clinical psychologist, which is one of the characteristics of professional interpersonal interaction. This form of attachment is often the basis for containing the affective disturbances that accompany illness. However, attachment, turning into dependence, causes negative reactions in the patient, leading to destructive forms of behavior. Therefore, the clinical psychologist must carefully control the interaction with the patient, being aware of his professional actions, so that emotional support does not interfere with providing the patient with the means to independently deal with difficulties and achieve his life goals.

It must be emphasized that interest in bioethics in recent decades will urgently require further development ethical foundations of modern clinical psychology.

The subject and structure of clinical psychology. Definitions of clinical psychologyhttp:// rudocs. exdat. com/ docs/ index-445265. html? page=2

Clinical psychology is a wide-profile specialty that has an intersectoral character and is involved in solving a complex of problems; health care system, public education and social assistance to the population. object clinical psychology is a person with difficulties in adaptation and self-realization associated with his physical, social and spiritual condition. Clinical psychology is a branch of psychology subject the study of which are:

disorders (disorders) of the psyche and behavior;

personal and behavioral characteristics of people suffering from various diseases;

impact psychological factors on the occurrence, development and treatment of diseases;

features of the relationship of sick people and the social microenvironment in which they are.

In a broader sense, clinical psychology can be understood as the application of the entire body of psychological knowledge to the solution of a wide variety of issues and problems that arise in medical practice. In a narrower sense, clinical psychology is a special methodology of psychological research, which is based on the method of observing a relatively small number of patients in natural conditions and subsequent subjective analysis-interpretation of individual manifestations of their psyche and personality. In this sense, clinical and psychological methodology fundamentally opposes the natural-science experimental approach, based on the criteria of "objective" (statistically reliable) psychological knowledge. Clinical psychology refers to an interdisciplinary field of scientific knowledge and practice, in which the interests of physicians and psychologists intersect. If we proceed from the problems that this discipline resolves (the mutual influence of the mental and somatic in the occurrence, course and treatment of diseases), and the practical tasks that are set before it (diagnosis of mental disorders, distinguishing between individual psychological characteristics and mental disorders, analysis of the conditions and factors for the occurrence of disorders and diseases, psychoprophylaxis, psychotherapy, psychosocial rehabilitation of patients, protection and maintenance of health), then it is a branch of medical science. However, if we proceed from the theoretical premises and research methods, this is a psychological science. Modern clinical psychology as a discipline that studies various disorders of the psyche and behavior using psychological methods can be used not only in medicine, but also in various educational, social and advisory institutions serving people with developmental anomalies and psychological problems. In pedagogical practice, clinical and psychological knowledge allows timely recognition of mental developmental disorders or deviations in behavior in a child, which in turn makes it possible to selectively and effectively apply adequate education technologies, psychological and pedagogical correction in relations with him and create optimal conditions for the development of his personality. taking into account individual characteristics. As an independent branch of psychological science in relation to pedagogical practice, modern clinical psychology has the following tasks:

study of the influence of psychological and psychosocial factors on the development of behavioral and personality disorders in a child, their prevention and correction;

study of the influence of deviations and disorders in mental and somatic development on the personality and behavior of the child;

study of the specifics and nature of disorders in the development of the child's psyche;

study of the nature of the relationship of the abnormal child with the immediate environment;

development of principles and methods of clinical and psychological research for pedagogical purposes;

creation and study of psychological methods of influencing the child's psyche for corrective and preventive purposes.

^ Main Sections clinical psychology are: pathopsychology, neuropsychology and psychosomatic medicine. In addition, it often includes such special sections as psychotherapy, rehabilitation, psychohygiene and psychoprophylaxis, the psychology of deviant behavior, the psychology of borderline mental disorders (neurosis). The number of special sections is constantly multiplying depending on the needs of society. And today you can find such private areas of clinical psychology as the psychology of post-traumatic stress, the psychology of disability, psychovenereology, psycho-oncology, social psychology of health, etc. Clinical psychology is closely related to such disciplines as psychiatry, psychopathology, neurology, psychopharmacology, physiology of higher nervous activity , psychophysiology, valeology, general psychology, psychodiagnostics, special psychology and pedagogy. The area of ​​intersection of scientific and practical interest of clinical psychology and psychiatry is diagnostics. Recall that historically clinical psychology originated in the depths of psychiatry as an auxiliary diagnostic tool. The psychiatrist focuses on the recognition of pathological organic processes that cause disorders of mental activity, as well as on the pharmacological effect on these processes and on the prevention of their occurrence. Psychiatry pays little attention to how mental processes proceed normally, in healthy people. The process of diagnosing mental disorders, on the one hand, involves the separation of the actual disorders caused by organic disorders and individual personality traits, and on the other hand, the diagnosis of mental disorders requires confirmation of the presence of psychological disorders in a person, which is done with the help of pathopsychological and neuropsychological experiments, and also through various psychological tests (tests). The overlapping subject matter of psychiatry and clinical psychology is mental disorders. However, clinical psychology also deals with disorders that are not diseases (the so-called "borderline mental disorders"). In fact, modern psychiatry and clinical psychology differ not in the subject, but in the point of view on the same subject: psychiatry focuses on the morpho-functional (somatic) side of a mental disorder, while clinical psychology focuses on the specifics of the psychological reality that occurs in mental disorders . The connection between clinical psychology and neurology is manifested in the concept of psycho-neural parallelism: each event in the mental sphere necessarily corresponds to a separate event at the level of the nervous system (not only central, but also peripheral). There is even a separate interdisciplinary field of medicine - psychoneurology. The connection between clinical psychology and psychopharmacology lies in the study of the latter psychological effects of drugs. This also includes the problem of the placebo effect in the development of new drug compounds. The connection of clinical psychology with the physiology of higher nervous activity and psychophysiology is manifested in the search for correlations between pathopsychological processes and their physiological correlates. The connection of clinical psychology with valeopsychology and psychohygiene lies in the joint definition of factors that oppose the emergence of mental and somatic disorders, and the refinement of mental health criteria. The connection of clinical psychology with special psychology and pedagogy is manifested in the search for ways to correct the problematic behavior of children and adolescents caused by mental functioning disorders or anomalies. personal development.^ Methodological principles of clinical psychology. Methodology is a system of principles and methods for organizing and building theoretical and practical activities, united by the doctrine of this system. She has different levels: philosophical, general scientific, concrete scientific, which are interconnected and should be considered systematically. Methodology is closely related to the worldview, since its system involves a worldview interpretation of the foundations of the study and its results. The methodology of clinical psychology itself is determined by the specific scientific level and is associated with the worldview of the researcher (for example, focused on a dynamic, cognitive-behavioral, humanistic or dialectical-materialistic understanding of personality, behavior, psychopathology). The methodology includes specific scientific methods of research: observation, experiment, modeling, etc. They, in turn, are implemented in special procedures - methods for obtaining scientific data. As a psychological discipline, clinical psychology relies on the methodology and methods of general psychology. Methods, that is, ways of knowing, are ways by which the subject of science is known. Psychology, every science, applies a system of private methods or techniques. The main requirement of scientific methodology, formulated by Hegel, is that research should reflect its subject in its internal logic. He demanded that the method be inseparable from the subject and its content. Methodology in psychology is implemented through the following provisions (principles).

The psyche, consciousness are studied in the unity of internal and external manifestations. The relationship between the psyche and behavior, consciousness and activity in its specific, changing forms is not only an object, but also a means of psychological research.

The solution of a psychophysical problem affirms the unity, but not the identity, of the mental and the physical; therefore, psychological research presupposes and often includes a physiological analysis of psychological (psychophysiological) processes.

The methodology of psychological research should be based on a socio-historical analysis of human activity.

The purpose of psychological research should be the disclosure of specific psychological patterns (the principle of individualization of research).

Psychological patterns are revealed in the process of development (genetic principle).

The principle of pedagogization of the psychological study of the child. It does not mean the rejection of experimental research in favor of pedagogical practice, but the inclusion of the principles of pedagogical work in the experiment itself.

Use in the methodology of psychological research products of activity, since the conscious activity of a person materializes in them (the principle of studying a specific person in a specific situation).

Have you decided to open and do business? Then you need to have knowledge in several compulsory areas, which will help not only build your business model, but also make you a professional.

An entrepreneur is a person who owns own enterprise or company. This concept should not be confused with self-employment, since self-employment does not involve opening an individual entrepreneur, and for a novice businessman this is a top priority. That is why it is so important to understand accounting, law, finance, be able to plan and delegate tasks.

Necessary knowledge that a novice entrepreneur must have

1. Any entrepreneurial activity is, first of all, planning. You need to know exactly what actions you need to take in order for the company to arouse interest among people. Chaotic actions and blurring of goals and deadlines are not able to make an entrepreneur a market leader.

2. Knowledge in the field of jurisprudence. Before becoming official legal entity, it is worth studying your rights and obligations, filling out documents for registering an individual entrepreneur, registering a seal and other procedures. If you know the basics of jurisprudence, then in the future it will be easy for you to draw up employment contracts, enter into contracts with suppliers or review the work of your lawyer.

3. Knowledge in the field of accounting. In addition to the fact that you will need to open a personal company account through which all financial transactions will be carried out, you will also acquire your cash machine. There are exceptional activities that do not require this apparatus. In addition, the company is required to submit quarterly reports on all its financial activities. To avoid problems with the tax authorities, it is necessary to keep financial records. Competently this can be done by a person who knows accounting.

4. Knowledge in the field of financing. Any entrepreneurial activity begins with the fact that novice businessmen are either looking for investors or partners, or they decide to develop the company on their own and take a loan. It is necessary to register all expenses and indicate what the income will be spent on. It is too early to talk about profit, since at first all the money is invested in business development. If you have earned your first 10,000 rubles, then you do not need to spend them on personal needs - invest this money in the development of the company.

5. Knowledge in the field of delegation. Many aspiring entrepreneurs sin by doing all the work on their own, while sacrificing their family, sleep, and their rest. They feel like no one can do this job better than them. You can't work like that! It is necessary to trust professionals and deal with more serious and large-scale tasks, and delegate routine and small matters to assistants.

Any goal entrepreneurial activity- this is a profit, this is its success. If an entrepreneur does not receive it, then he will not feel happiness and, moreover, a harmonious life.

What knowledge should you have modern man V modern world?

Age of development modern technologies takes a number of routine duties off our shoulders. They come to help smart cars. What should a modern person know in order not to turn into a helpless lazy person? Indeed, in the absence of independent decisions in certain life situations, it makes each of us dependent on modern mechanisms.

20 things a modern person should know

Smart gadgets, computers, microwave ovens, washing machines… imagine that all this has disappeared. Consider what knowledge and skills a modern person should have:

1. Making decisions.
2. Creative thinking.
3. Analytic mind.
4. Communication skills.
5. Fast adaptability.
6. Self-education.
7. Memory development.
8. Healthy lifestyle.
9. Organization.
10. Self-development.
11. Know how to make a fire.
12. Know the basics of geography.
13. Use a map and compass.
14. Provide first aid.
15. Choose quality food.
16. Know how to cook food.
17. Use hammer and axe.
18. Fix things.
19. Know how to sew.
20. Swim.

As you can see, the list consists of two parts.

First part - necessary skills for personal development, the second - basic life skills. Let's consider each item in more detail.

Skills for the development of a person's personality

The development of the following principles will help to distinguish successful person from an ordinary individual.

• Making decisions. From the correctness of the decision that a person chooses in a given life situation, his future depends. Important aspect- the decision must not only be made, but also implemented.
• Creative thinking. Such qualities as ingenuity and the ability to find new options for solving old problems will force a person to break their ingrained stereotypes.
• Analytic mind. The ability to use logic in the comprehensive analysis of certain information. With the development analytical warehouse mind, a person is able to find best option problem solving.
• Communication skills. Art effective communication person with other members of society. Good communication skills allow you to successfully interact with the world and be understood by others.
• Fast adaptability. Adaptation of a person to the formed criteria and requirements of a separate group (for example, a school, a work team). Due to the rapid adaptability, a person easily enters into new team and adequately orientated in the new group.
• Self-education. Self-education allows you to get relevant knowledge that a person needs for further personal development. Helps to increase intellectual abilities and expand the circle of communication.
• The development of memory. A good memory allows you to achieve success in any field of activity. This quality is especially relevant in our information time, associated with huge flows of information.
• Healthy lifestyle. It is impossible to achieve success in life without good health. A healthy lifestyle is not only regular exercise in the morning, but also proper nutrition, regular sleep and body hygiene support.
• Organization. This item includes self-discipline, organization of the day and the ability to fulfill everything planned in advance. An organized person can effectively distribute his forces and get excellent results as a result.
• Self-development. Continuous development is the basis for the success of any person. Improving his skills, a person increases his intellectual potential, personal culture, will and mental capabilities.

Life skills.

Vital skills will help in both Everyday life, so in unusual situation :

• Ability to make fire. The light and warmth of a bonfire will help a tourist lost in the forest save his life.
• Know the basics of geography. People will consider you ignorant if you do not know what is outside your country.
• Use a map and compass. Once in an unknown area, these items will help you find the right path.
• Provide first aid. In order to treat an abrasion or apply a tourniquet to the hand, it is not necessary to have a medical degree.
• Choose quality food. These skills will help not only when choosing mushrooms and berries in the forest, but will also come in handy when visiting a local supermarket.
• Cook food. Not knowing how to cook simple dishes, such as scrambled eggs, sooner or later you will find yourself in a ridiculous situation.
• Use hammer and axe. You don't have to be a carpenter to hammer a nail into a house. Every man should master these simple tools.
• Fix things. The cost of repairing items is at least 30% of the value of the item itself. If you can do something yourself, you don't have to pay cash master.
• Know how to sew. Will allow the family to save on model studios.
• Swim. The surface of our planet is more than 70% water. Agree - this is a weighty argument in order to learn to swim.

Elementary things.

These things should be known not only by an adult, but also by a student. primary school schools. There are different situations in life when in a company in question about elementary things, but you do not understand this issue. For example:

• There are 0.62 miles in one kilometer.
• There are 9 planets in the solar system.
• There are 6 continents on earth.
• The cheetah is the fastest animal.
• There are 251 countries in the world.
• The Sahara is the largest desert.

Fun and interesting facts.

Information can be interesting not only from a scientific point of view, but also contain fun facts:

Here are some of them:

• When eating celery, a person spends more calories than he receives energy from this product.
• About half a year, an ordinary city dweller spends under a red traffic light.
• If no dye was added to Cola, its color would be green.
• Money is made from cotton, not paper.
• An adult laughs an average of 15 times a day, a small child - more than 300.

Now you know exactly what modern man needs to know. Of course, this is not the whole list. In order to become an erudite and interesting person for those around you, you need to read more than one hundred books and popular science articles.

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