Efficiency and effectiveness in the management of the organization. Modern approaches to assessing the effectiveness of organization management
The effectiveness of managing an organization is primarily concerned with the internal characteristics of the organization and their relationship with the market and institutional costs, among them: coordination, transmission system and acceptance mechanism. management decisions.
Not only technologies, equipment and materials are important for the effective economic activity of an organization. Of great importance is the process of their application, as well as the philosophy of managing people's activities.
One way to solve the problem of performance criteria is to order them in terms of the organization's fundamental characteristics. This approach relates the criteria to the constituent parts of the organization and hence introduces a rational grouping, ie a combination of criteria related to previously explored topics. It then helps to explain the principle of hierarchization of criteria, since hierarchization exactly corresponds to the internal structure of the organization.
The performance parameters of the system can also be considered as efficiency parameters. They allow assessing the quality of problem solving and the achievement of the goals set for the system. For economic organization efficiency parameters can be: the cost and time of creation, income and profit for a fixed period, etc. It is no coincidence that when choosing the composition of efficiency parameters, what the system is created for, as well as the purpose of the study, are taken into account.
Evaluating economic efficiency, they calculate and optimize income, profit, losses, labor productivity, etc. The complexity of vector optimization has led to the widespread use of criteria linearization techniques that involve the transition from the vector form of the criterion to a one-dimensional linear one. The best known are additive and multiplicative criteria.
The main disadvantage of this type of criteria is that the lack of some qualities is compensated for by an excess of others. This is wrong, first of all, in theoretical terms, since the various qualities of the system are incomparable. Moreover, an expert method is used to determine the weight coefficients, which reduces the overall objectivity of the assessment.
Another approach to the formation of performance criteria is to assign one part of the effect parameters that need to be improved to the numerator, and the other part of the parameters that need to be reduced to the denominator. Its main disadvantage is that with a decrease in the denominator, as well as with an insignificant value of the numerator, it is possible to provide great importance criteria. Therefore, to use this kind of criterion, it is necessary to apply restrictions on either the numerator or the denominator. Here the most famous is the criterion "efficiency/costs".
Another approach to the formation of performance criteria is to maximize or minimize one of the performance parameters, as well as to impose restrictions on the rest.
Multifunctional systems are used on a certain fixed set of conditions. To optimize the entire system, the effectiveness of the options in each of the conditions is evaluated.
Recognition of the characteristics of successful achievement of goals as one of the measures of organizational performance is often considered by economists as a violation of the main axiom in the traditional theory of production efficiency, according to which efficiency should be measured only by the ratio of the result (output) of the system to the applied or expended resources (input).
Description of the functioning of the system in the form of the dependence of its “outputs” on “inputs”, without regard to internal device is a model of her behavior according to the “stimulus-response” scheme. Such a model of the behavior of objects of the most diverse nature, due to its extreme abstractness, makes it possible to identify a single efficiency parameter for any system (the ratio of "output" to "input"). reverse side such a generalized description of the behavior of systems is leaving in the shade the meaningful features of the effectiveness of the functioning (and development) of purposeful systems.
Such features become most obvious in the transition from the scheme of behavior of purposeful systems to the scheme of their activity. The scheme of activity as components must necessarily include a motive that encourages action, a goal that gives an idea of the future result of the activity, and a means to achieve the goal. To move from a general scheme of activity to a model of its effectiveness, the latter must include the actual result. The effectiveness of the functioning and development of the organization depends on the following factors:
Goal-setting qualities, i.e. compliance of planned goals with requirements external environment, the interests of personnel and the capabilities of the enterprise;
Adequacy of the chosen strategies to the set goals;
The strength and direction of motivations that ensure the achievement of the goals of the organization;
The volume and quality of resources needed for development. The first three factors give an idea of the strategic aspect of production efficiency, and the last one - of the tactical one.
Thus, it is impossible to reduce the assessment of the effectiveness of enterprises and other socio-economic systems only to the ratio of results to costs, since this means ignoring the criteria for making strategic decisions, on which their quality depends.
Depending on the listed restrictions, three families of models for the effectiveness of managing an economic organization are distinguished (Fig. 13.1).
1. A family of models centered around goals. The basic idea is that the effectiveness of an economic organization determines its ability to achieve predetermined goals. Such models rest on a hypothesis that is not easily explained. The target approach involves the rational activity of certain groups of the organization to achieve the intended goals. Therefore, one must proceed from the fact that goals can be set quite definitely, and in order to determine the effectiveness, it is necessary that the progress made in this direction can be accurately recorded and measurable. The experience of the theory shows that in connection with these hypotheses, even if such a simple goal as profit maximization is achieved, many problems arise.
2. A family of models where system criteria take precedence, i.e., criteria that are imposed on an economic organization, since such models are able to ensure the internal unity of the organization and guarantee its survival in a changing environment. Selected criteria give an idea of the internal characteristics of the organization.
Rice. 13.1. Three families of models of management efficiency of an economic organization
However, here we also encounter a hypothesis that makes empirical calculation difficult, because the systems approach appeals more to the means of maintaining relations between the participants in the organization than to goals. The internal distribution of resources, the introduction of rules for the interaction of participants, the definition of hierarchical relationships occupy a central place here and lead to the complexity of estimating costs. In addition, the criterion of organizational survival puts forward the idea of the relationship between the organization and the environment of its functioning through a single factor - adaptability to an uncertain world, and this leads to a very passive vision of the organization, concentrated on its reactions.
3. A family of models that combine the criteria found in the theories of the so-called strategic components. Here, the analysis rejects the idea that performance can be assessed on the basis of predetermined criteria or system characteristics. These approaches indicate that the organization prefers criteria that allow it to provide minimum level satisfaction for its constituent parts, the motives of activity and the goals of which are different. If this level is not reached, then the activity of the organization is inefficient. Such components can be both internal and external components of the organization. Difficulties in dealing with these criteria are related to the problem of identifying strategic components and the ability to determine exactly how the organization depends on the constituent parts.
The problem of choosing the exact economic criteria that can be used both to evaluate the performance of the organizations themselves and to compare them with each other is an extremely difficult theoretical task. Success for a leader is a combination of criteria based mainly on:
On meeting the needs of the participants in the organization and, as a result, on reducing the level of conflicts that are generated by the heterogeneity of motivations;
On the expansion of the organization itself, its ability to increase its share in the developed market or develop new markets, on the ability to provide new services.
Thus, the success of an economic organization is always associated with an increase in the volume of its activities and, consequently, with its ability to replace the market. The final criterion of effectiveness implies the impact of the organization on its environment: effective organization in many ways changes the external environment to its advantage.
In the economic literature, many aspects of the effectiveness of organization management are distinguished: internal, external, market, general, tactical, global, etc. (tab.
In addition to the listed types of organization efficiency, local types of efficiency can be distinguished investment projects organizations that are characterized by a system of indicators that reflect the ratio of costs and results in relation to the interests of its participants. There are the following performance indicators of an investment project:
Commercial (financial) efficiency;
Budget efficiency;
Economic efficiency. Table 13.1
Efficiency classification
Table 13.2
Internal performance indicators
The chosen aspect of efficiency may be different, but the effectiveness of management in dynamics characterizes the growth of the organization, i.e., it implies a change in the boundaries between organizations, as well as between organizations and the market.
The internal efficiency of managing an organization depends on the dynamics of its own goals both for the entire organization as a whole and for individual groups of its participants in particular. The most common criterion for the growth of an organization is the indicator of maximizing sales, as it meets the aspirations of consumers, company management, managers and workers, etc. However, to apply this efficiency criterion, it is necessary to have extensive information about the nature of the demand curve for organization's output in the long run.
Maximizing the rate of sales is a realistic criterion for the growth of an organization. It is put in line with two variables: investments and profits, where the volume of investments directly depends on the amount of profits retained and indirectly on the dividends paid to shareholders.
One of the options for the criterion of success in achieving the organization's own goals is maximizing the growth rate of its real assets, equity capital. Here, a restriction is introduced on the market and book value of share capital -
"valuation rate". Quantitatively, it is a fraction, in the numerator of which - bir-
is the cost of equity capital, and the denominator is the cost of equity capital according to the balance sheet value.
Naturally, in the study of the internal effectiveness of management, any analysis should begin with a study structural elements organization, as they ensure its survival in the process of selection of factors of change and identify factors of effectiveness.
The harmonious functioning of the organization as a complex system provides an effective way to manage its components (in the general case, equipment and people) in any production situation. And this method can only be applied within the framework of an effective organization management system. The internal efficiency of an organization depends entirely on the level of total labor productivity. Therefore, it is possible to speak about the possibility of creating an effective organization only if there are effective mechanisms for increasing labor productivity. Increasing individual labor productivity depends on the precise and uninterrupted functioning of the motivation mechanism. The real chances for an increase in the productivity of organizational and technical means are associated primarily with the use of methods scientific organization labor and with a high degree of production and technological equipment of the organization.
An effective personnel management system should function according to the rules effective motivation, while an effective system of management of organizational and technical means - according to the rules of effective organization of labor, taking into account its horizontal and vertical division and based on the production technologies used.
According to another approach, the internal efficiency of the organization is the management of resources, which is understood as a combination of costs and capital. At the same time, the subject of economics in the narrow sense is associated with the rational use of resources. Economics helps businessmen to draw up balance sheets, calculate their losses, profits, etc. In a broad sense, this discipline, over time, has come to cover the processes of income reproduction, as well as marketing and some aspects and functions of development.
The growth elements of an economic organization are associated with a combination of factors of external and internal environment organizations. The economic environment is manifested in demand factors (especially if the organizations are enterprises), in technological innovations (since the latter appear to be mostly external to the individual organization) and in the structural conditions of the market (availability of energy and human resources, the degree of competition, the existence of patents, etc.). d.).
The internal dynamics of the organization, its elements are closely related to organizational flexibility, taking into account the motivations of subgroups of participants (attitude to risk, considerations of prestige, craving for power, etc.), and with incentive factors put in the first place by the dominant group of the coalition that "controls" the organization. Such incentives are aimed at reducing uncertainty in the long run: providing employment, guaranteeing a progressive career, etc.
Modern efficiency strategies combine resource management with a drive to scale up. The complex interaction between resources and results requires the allocation of static and dynamic aspects in the efficiency structure. For the first time, such a classification of efficiency was used by the American economist (Austrian by origin) J. Schumpeter in the study of entrepreneurial activity. If static efficiency characterizes the process of adaptation to the current economic situation of companies that are not designed for additional growth, then dynamic efficiency characterizes the development trend. The concept of dynamic efficiency
ness is necessary for strategic management. Later, this idea of classification was supported by many economists and managers.
Static efficiency and ways to control it are the main ones in managing the current processes of an enterprise's activities in a relatively short period of time, i.e., in solving operational and tactical issues. At the same time, strategic management is impossible without studying the dynamic aspects of efficiency, when enterprises must incur additional costs in the current period (reducing the possibility of short-term efficiency improvement), as necessary condition ensuring stable and high efficiency in the long term.
Dynamic efficiency is the main way to maintain the high competitiveness of an enterprise for the longest possible period of time. It is necessary to note the equal value for the enterprise of these aspects of efficiency. The use of only methods of managing static efficiency can adversely affect the prospects for the development of an enterprise. At the same time, excessive enthusiasm for the dynamic aspect of efficiency, associated with great risk, can lead to unjustified expenses, loss of the pace of its transition to a new quality of efficiency.
Analyzing the system of performance indicators, the following groups can be distinguished
(Table 13.3): Table 13.3
Performance Scorecard
1) general performance indicators;
2) performance indicators of living labor (labor resources);
3) performance indicators for the use of fixed assets, working capital and capital investments;
4) performance indicators for the use of material resources;
5) indicators of the economic efficiency of new technology (reflection of the economic efficiency of new technology in planned and reporting indicators).
The classic ratio that allows you to evaluate the economic efficiency
(Uh), looks like this:
The most well-known methods for assessing the economic effect are:
Indirect method of comparing different options;
Method by end results;
Method based on direct results of activity.
These methods give estimated results in a certain range without claiming strict accuracy.
N.A. Baranov
Topic 3. Theory and methodology for analyzing the effectiveness of political and administrative management
1. Methodological problems of the theory of public administration and politics
Methodologyis the defining beginning of the process of cognition, a system of general theoretical requirements that are implemented in a complex of specific requirements and methods of scientific knowledge and explanation of objects of social reality. The methodology can be defined as research organization principles,“norms”, with the help of which the procedures of cognition are selected and formalized.
In modern political science, there are various methodological concepts for analyzing political reality, each of which creates its own logic of knowledge, builds its own conceptual apparatus, establishes normative connections and relationships between basic concepts.
Public administration and politics as a branch of political science has its own logic, organically linked with the history of the development of world philosophical, political, sociological and legal thought. Knowledge of the main philosophical directions, methods of studying politics, the content of the main sociological and legal theories is necessary today for a specialist in the field of public administration to form both their own methodological thinking and understanding the corporate and national management culture, without mastering which work -but claim to occupy strategic positions in modern system government controlled. It is the lack of modern methodological thinking that today largely contributes to the creation of inefficient public administration schemes based on outdated logics of thinking and activity.
The main general scientific methodologies of the modern theory of public policy and management are activity, systemic, structural-functional, cybernetic, situational, conflictological approaches.
Activity approach emphasizes the social nature of society, politics, state, law. Society, politics and public administration are created by the vigorous activity of subjects, reflexive in nature. But the content and results of this activity are different in nature.
Society is the result of universal social activity . “Not created by anyone in particular,” emphasizes English sociologist E. Giddens, - society is produced and reproduced almost from scratch by participants in a social event. The production of society is the essence of skillful design, provided and implemented by man. It is possible only because each member of society is a practicing social theorist: in carrying out all kinds of interactions, he usually refers to his knowledge and theories; and it is the use of these practical resources that is the condition for the implementation of interaction in general.
Politics is the result and a special kind of social activity , which, according to the German sociologist M. Weber, on the one hand, is a special enterprise, apparatus of the legitimate master ( Herrschaftsbetrieb ), and on the other hand, specific professional activity ( Politik als Beruf ) pervading all public life.
The whole society and people are divided depending on their place in this general social "enterprise" into: 1) "politicians by chance" (for example, ordinary voters); 2) " part-time politicians "(party activists for whom politics is not yet the main field of activity) and 3) " professional politicians "(Statesmen and officials, released party functionaries, etc.).
Thus, according to M. Weber, politics as a sphere public life is formed only with the emergence of the state-administrative apparatus as the “headquarters of a political enterprise” of the whole society, as well as with the isolation of managerial activity into a special profession of people associated with the control and distribution of power.
Public administration is a specific type of professional political activity of the government, based on legitimate coercion and subordination, in order to organize and satisfy public interests and needs.
Systems approach , which has received wide recognition and distribution, is a fundamental application of general systems theory to policy and management analysis. He received theoretical justification in the works of the 1950s and 1960s. XX V. T. Parsons, D. Easton, G. Almond, K. Deutsch. Thanks to these scientists, the fundamental concepts of systems theory were introduced into the humanities: “open and closed system”, “environment”, “structure”, “stability”, “balance”, etc. A systematic approach in the theory of public administration and politics implies the presence in public administration and politics of features of an internal relationship between elements that form a single whole, the quality of which is not reducible to the sum individual qualities elements .
Structural-functional approach closely related to the systems approach. Structural-functional analysis is subordinated to the solution of problems related to the existence, functioning and maintenance of the viability of the system. The structural aspect includes the definition of the elements that make up a particular system, and the identification of stable connections and relationships between them. The functional aspect includes the study internal mechanisms the functioning of the elements, and the external functioning of the system in the process of its interaction with the external (environment) environment. Knowledge and understanding of internal connections and relationships in the interaction of system elements allows us to reveal the conditions for its functioning and life, to establish the functional dependences of its existence on the external environment.
Analysis of the external interaction of the system and environment opens up the possibility of transition towards a cybernetic approach, appeal to such concepts as "information", "direct" and "feedback" communication, "closed system", "input", "output", etc.
Politics is carried out within the framework of political systems that interact with each other, or with the environment or environment. The political system is a special type of social systems that are involved in making powerful public decisions. In other words, "a political system is a set of institutions (such as parliament, bureaucracy and courts) that formulate and implement the collective goals of a society or groups existing in it." The political system is shaped by the domestic and international environment and in turn shapes it.
The heart of the political system is the state. It is a special type of political system that has sovereignty - independent legal power over the population permanently residing in a particular territory, and a monopoly on legitimate violence. The state is the highest form of organization of the human community, it is a political union of citizens, expressing the unity of their will, subordination to a single authority in order to ensure common interests and protect human rights and freedoms. The state is a special political and legal institution designed to regulate and manage social relations, generally significant types of behavior and activities of people in society through a system of norms.
The system receives at the input from the environment certain impulses in the form of requirements and support (feed-forward) and, for its part, influences it through its output signals (feedback). The boundaries of the political system are defined in terms of individuals (citizenship), territory (sovereignty) and property.
The logical continuation of the structural-functional analysis is in many ways situational approach. “In the theory of administrative and public administration,” Vasilenko A.I. believes, “situational analysis is not a simple set of prescribed rules, but rather a way of thinking about organizational problems and their solutions. From the point of view of the situational concept of state administration, there are no optimal organizational structures. And although the situational approach recognizes the general patterns of the process of administrative and public administration, the specific techniques that managers must use to effectively achieve goals at eachmanagement level and in each organization can vary significantly.
As part of the situational analysis, the administration must determine which structure or management techniques are most appropriate for this particular situation. Moreover, since the situation may change, it must plan what structural innovations can be made in order to maintain effective management.
Most modern researchers distinguish as the main internal situational control variables the following parameters: goals, objectives, structures, technologies and management personnel .
Main situational variables of the external environment named factors such as political process, state of the economy, scientific and technological progress, socio-cultural changes, influence of group interests .
Each of the management techniques used in a particular situation has its strengths and weak sides: the administration must be able to foresee the likely consequences of the application of the methodology chosen by it, both positive and negative.
Conflict approach emphasizes the contradictory nature of the interaction between the governing and managed systems, the specifics of the state's management activities aimed at regulating and resolving public conflicts between general and private interests, between demands addressed political system from various social groups , or from its internal and external environment.
Society as a social system cannot fully satisfy the interests and needs of all social groups that occupy far from the same socio-economic and political position in it, have different interests and values, have unequal access to its material and spiritual resources, mechanisms. creation and distribution of values. The state therefore serves as a legal and legitimate institution that resolves and manages social conflicts on the basis of law and established rules of law.
The conflictological approach considers politics as a continuous process of managing and resolving conflicts in order to reach agreement or compromise between the participants in the conflict. . This process may involve states, and other political organizations, such as, for example, parties or interest groups. State conflict management is a kind professional activity government and other competent executive authorities aimed at resolving the conflict in the interests of society, maintaining stability and ensuring its security.
Modern specialists in the field of public administration and politics must master all types of methodology, develop personal and corporate methodological thinking in order to improve professional activities, improve the quality and efficiency of management.
2. Basic concepts and concept of effective political and administrative management
The low economic efficiency of the public sector, combined with its unprecedented socio-economic activity, was one of the key reasons for the crisis of public financial systems in many Western countries. As a consequence of the significant increasing the share of government spending relative to GDP(from 1970 to 1990 in Japan by 12%; in the UK - by 7; in Sweden - by 17%), the size of the budget deficit and domestic debt increased sharply (over the same period in Sweden by 14%; in Germany - by 26%; in Japan - by 54%). This has significantly undermined the foundations of healthy economic development by upsetting the balance between the public and private sectors. Raising taxes as a necessary consequence of the growing socio-economic activity of the state weakens the incentives for capital accumulation, its investment in production. A significant amount of social transfers (from 1970 to 1990, their growth in the United States was approximately 5%; in Japan and France - 7; in Sweden - about 10%) adversely affects the quality of human resources, since the activity of the population in achieving strategic goals - obtaining higher education, producing innovations, raising social status.
The simplest solution to the problem of economic inefficiency in the public sector could be economies of scale, i.e. reduction (possibly through mergers) of government programs and allocations for them. However, such a policy had only a short-term positive economic effect, and since the beginning of the 90s. fast growth the share of the population of retirement age, the need to introduce new expensive environmental programs, the remaining stably high unemployment rate required new budget expenditures.
The main issue on the agenda is the effective organization of the process of action of the elements of the public administration system between themselves and external agents. rather than the release of funds due to budget cuts, reductions in government programs, the sale of state property, or other measures of an extensive nature. Neither market instruments nor a rigid administrative system are able by themselves to ensure a satisfactory social quality of public administration in conditions when it is subject to competitiveness, a variety of services and, at the same time, an increase in public spending, maximum fairness in their distribution. -tion. Here we have to agree with M. Crozier, who believed that the potential of any transformations in the state, their quality depends not so much on the impact of the administrative apparatus on society, but on the reverse impact of society on the apparatus and the reform of this apparatus.
The concept of "efficiency" has many interpretations and interpretations. So, for example, in microeconomics, efficiency is often understood as a production function that describes the dependence of costs and output, or the achievement of the largest volume of production of goods and services using resources of a certain cost. In administrative theory, a technical (or organizational) component is often singled out, determined from the standpoint of goal achievement. Technical efficiency means the degree to which public services meet the needs, desires and resources of their clients , i.e., reflects the compliance of the management organization with external conditions.
The multiplicity of meanings of the concept of "efficiency" and the difficulties of its unambiguous definition are also reflected in the terminology. Thus, in English-language literature, along with the concept of " effectiveness », meaning efficiency, the concepts “ efficiency ”, translated how performance, And " productivity ", meaning performance. In addition, in recent years, along with these terms the concept of “ performance",translated as the degree of efficiency of functioning, which allows us to introduce a qualitative aspect into the definition of the effectiveness of organizations .
The content of the concept of "efficiency" has changed over time, gradually acquiring a wider range of interpretations. Adherents of the "classical school" (Taylor and others) often interpreted efficiency as the achievement of formal goals by predetermined methods within specific deadlines. However, such a mechanistic approach turned out to be appropriate only for analyzing the effectiveness of simple organizations, whose personnel are subject to clear rules and perform routine operations. Simple Organization with a rigid hierarchical structure and, usually, strong paternalistic traditions, made elementary demands on the employee: to be loyal and perform work on time in the manner indicated above. In the "classical" paradigm of administrative policy, based on the principles set forth in the works of F. Taylor, V. Wilson and M. Weber, the emphasis on the efficiency of the public administration apparatus is decisive. Efficiency in this case is objective, impersonal in nature and is based on three methodological principles: the separation of administration from politics, the recognition that, according to Taylor, “in every element of any work there is always one method and one way of execution, which is faster and better than all the rest” and, finally, on the recognition of the bureaucratic organization as the most effective for the implementation of scientific principles of management. With this approach, in fact, they did not affectpsychological, social and political aspects of efficiency.
The political aspect was deliberately discarded, since the traditional administrative models were based on the principle of a clear separation of the competences of politicians and administrators. Gradually, the contradictions between ideal bureaucratic models and real managerial practice became so obvious that it was necessary to adjust the concept of efficiency, to include a wider range of aspects of managerial activity in it.
The “School of Human Relations” began to interpret efficiency How a complex, complex phenomenon, determined by a number of criteria: the degree of satisfaction of the organization's personnel with their work and its results, the level of staff turnover in the organization, staff motivation, etc. This has largely corrected the understanding of the phenomenon of efficiency, including in his research socio-psychological factors and informal connections within the organization.
Cybernetic and then synergetic approach to the analysis of efficiency made the concept more complex. The starting point of their methodologies became the openness of the organization, active interaction with the environment . If we consider changes in the approach to the analysis of the conditions for effective management through the prism of the development of models organizational systems, then we can distinguish three types of such system models , each of which is based on organizational principles developed, respectively, by the "classical school", cybernetic and synergetic approaches. These types were discussed above, so we will limit ourselves to listing them:
1) mechanical type organizational system;
2) adaptive type organizational system;
3) creative type organizational system.
Cybernetics and, later, the synergetic approach also define new conditions for efficiency:
a) the need to abandon the artificial imposition of directions for the development of complex systems;
b) the actualization of the so-called sensitivity to the initial conditions, which consists in highlighting the special in the conditions of the genesis of the organization and the process of its development. Particular attention is paid to the "personal"the history of the organization;
c) determining the effectiveness of managerial activity not through an analysis of the amount of resources expended, but through a study of the qualitative distribution of managerial impact (administrative impact configurations), etc.
d) recognition of the plurality of potential scenarios for the development of complex systems (it is fundamentally important for effective management to take into account the maximum number of such scenarios or models);
e) the accelerated qualitative growth of the system is determined by the inclusion of positive feedback mechanisms, leading to “blow-up regimes”.
Thus, the new systemic performance indicator has become even more complex, since it includes both historical, economic, psychological (motivational), and structural and communicative components.
3. Social efficiency of political and administrative management.
In recent years, in Western and Russian literature, there has been a desire to talk about "social economy" And "social efficiency" contrasting these: concepts with earlier and narrower meanings of efficiency / and productivity. This is due to the departure from the mechanistic approach to management, the change in the management paradigm, the actualization of the analysis of social interactions in the course of the management process, as well as the requirement to assess the social effects of management decisions. IN Western literature dedicated to public administration issues, concept " social efficiency» in most cases is used as a kind of alternative to economic efficiency and productivity. However, this approach does not provide us with qualitative characteristics of the phenomenon of social efficiency and only makes it difficult to understand what specific meaning is attached to the concept of social efficiency.
Another versioninterpretation of social efficiency links this phenomenon with effective social policy states, the creation and distribution of public goods. The critical attitude to the market mechanism of distribution, caused, first of all, by the need to eliminate market flaws through the political mechanism of its correction, actualized the importance of social efficiency as a more equitable distribution of benefits. However, this approach also does not seem entirely legitimate, since it implies a contradiction between the maximization of the public good in the form, say, social support, free education, medical care and economic (market) efficiency, requiring the optimal allocation of resources. Thus, there is a certain tension between the social component of the term and efficiency .
However, these positions focus on only one problem - the efficient allocation of resources. Therefore, we will try to give a general definition of social efficiency, more accurately corresponding to the problems of the theory of political and administrative management. Social efficiency of political and administrative management it is the effectiveness of the mechanism for coordinating social interaction.
Here we are primarily interested in the influence of non-economic factors (such as organizational structure, managerial culture, etc.), defined through the value transaction costs(exchange costs). Thus, the basis of socially effective political and administrative management is the minimization of transaction costs ( Ti ) under given constraints on the amount of costs ( Zi ) and risk level ( Ri ): min Ti Ri< Rn Zi < Zn .
Respectively, the higher the social efficiency, the lower the costs of society for transaction costs. For modern post-industrial societies, the issue of the growth of transaction costs is quite acute, since it is determined by the increasing complexity of contractual relations, the deepening division of labor, and the increase in the number of innovations. It is no less relevant for the so-called transitional societies, especially Russia and countries former USSR. Here the growth of transaction costs is determined perhaps for other reasons: the loss of guidelines for social interaction, an exceptionally low level of trust in the government, politicians, business partners, an underdeveloped information system, etc.
4. Increasing the efficiency of various political and administrative systems.
Revealed above the trend of transition from the economic concept of efficiency to the social(or socially oriented) can be traced to the example of the efficiency movement in North American, European (continental) and South Asian (Taiwan, South Korea, Japan) political and administrative systems . Such an analysis will make it possible to understand how certain concepts won the practice of political and administrative management, who was the subject of promoting ideas and setting goals, how this affected the final result of the work of the public administration system.
Let's single out four main stages of the efficiency movement in the United States of America and analyze each of them.
At the first stage (1900-1940) the topic of the effectiveness of public administration becomes relevant and for the first time attracts wide attention of specialists, politicians and the public. To replace the traditional moral characteristics of the work of government officials (often subjective value judgments) comes value-neutral scientific analysis management institutions and processes . First of all, the problem of the effective organization of labor of managers and personnel is actualized. An obvious reason for the growing interest in the practice of effective administration was the process of becoming an industrial society. At the same time, efficiency gradually became a kind of fetish for administrators and politicians. It is no coincidence that the expression " gospel of efficiency ”(“the gospel of efficiency”), emphasizing the irrational-value shade of faith in the approach to this problem.
During this period, the United States actively promoted the concept scientific management, based on the works of F. Taylor. In 1906, a research organization was created in New York, speaking under the motto "For independence from politics and public opinion», advocating efficiency gains through the involvement of specialists in public administration and the achievement of political neutrality public service.
At the federal level a practical consequence of the actualization of the problem of improving the efficiency of public administration has become creation in 1913 of the so-called Taft Commission(National Bureau of Efficiency), as well as the Institute of Government Studies.
To study the organization of effective work at the local level created Bureau for the Study of Municipal Problems. Particular attention has been paid to the effectiveness of public administration since the late 1920s, which is undoubtedly associated with the expansion of the state's competence during the implementation of the New Deal program by the government of F. Roosevelt.
Second phaseefficiency movement (1940 - 1970s) characterized by uncertainty in the choice of approaches to solving the problem of organizing effective public administration. First of all, it was caused difference in views on the role of politicians and managers in ensuring the efficient operation of the bureaucratic machine . At the level of methodology, this situation was expressed in the divergence of opinions regarding the nature of administrative policy. On the one hand, it was interpreted as a political science, on the other hand, as part of an administrative theory. Of particular concern was the unjustified growth of budget expenditures, which they tried to stop by improving the work management organizations. Thus, the first and second Hoover commissions (respectively in 1949 and 1955) offered their recommendations on production estimates and norms, on budget expenditures and reports, which was designed to increase the productivity of the public sector. Since 1962, the Bureau of the Budget has been conducting productivity surveys in a number of administrative agencies to develop reliable performance indicators. Thus, in the evaluation of effectiveness at the second stage, quantitative indicators clearly dominated, and cost savings and cost control were chosen as a key goal . The reason for this was a noticeable increase in the cost of government programs. At the same time, the discussion and search for solutions to the problem of efficiency remained mainly the lot of politicians, who in most cases sought not to develop and implement a set of reforms, but rather to increase their own political capital.
Third stageefficiency movement ( 1970 - 1980s) was characterized replacement of administrators by managers of a new type - public sector managers. This process reflected a general tendency to replace administration (a directive method of management within a well-functioning bureaucratic machine) by economic management in the public sector. In fact, it was then that the movement began towards a “minimal” state, managed by methods introduced from the private sector, with a clear separation of the sphere of administrative (economic) management and the sphere of politics.
By the beginning of the 90s, as already noted in previous topics, a model of public administration of the entrepreneurial type took shape ( entrepreneurial government ), based on market principles . Entrepreneurial activity or entrepreneurship of public servants refers to their work aimed at finding new, more efficient ways to use resources. Management organizations are guided by innovation, constant renewal, carried out without rigid determination from the outside.
At the present stage of the movement for efficiency (the end XX - beginning of XXI centuries)played a special role new factors. These can be attributed technical re-equipment of administrative institutions, fundamental changes in the field of employment, the requirement for broad participation of citizens in making managerial decisions, the globalization of economic and socio-cultural ties .
Modern information technologies opened wide opportunities for establishing new communication channels, changing the very psychology of interaction between the state and citizens. To describe the complexity, multidimensionality, intricacy of modern communications, as already noted, the term network is often used ( network ), reflecting at the same time the dehierarchization social life and establishment in the process of communication of relations of interdependence of subjects. Network interaction also actualizes the plurality of centers of power, centers for making managerial decisions, diagnosing the deprivation of the centralized apparatus of government, for example, the nation state, of exclusive rights to interpret politics, social and cultural life.
As for the search models of effective public administration in Western Europe, then in most European countries (Sweden, Denmark, Norway, France, Spain, Italy) the efficiency movement was not as overtly market-driven as in the UK and the US. Methods for improving the efficiency of the public sector had enough clear social focus and were not aimed at a radical transformation of the type of social state that had developed here.
In France and Sweden, the targets social justice dominate goals market efficiency public service. The main task of improving the efficiency of public administration in these countries, along with a focus on reducing the cost of government programs, on customer requests and the quality of services, has become more wide involvement of citizens in the management process, increasing (sometimes to the detriment of performance) representativeness of the composition of the civil service, expanding the powers of local administrations , and this, in turn, forms the basis of socially effective public administration.
Processes similar to the European and American movement to improve the efficiency of public administration are also taking place in the states of Southeast Asia: Japan and South Korea. Sociocultural features, determined the specifics of the movement towards socially effective public administration in these countries, were a strong multicultural influence exerted throughout their history, first from Confucian China, then Western Europe and the USA, the high integration of Japanese and South Korean societies, as well as the exclusive role of the state bureaucracy during the post-war industrial growth of these countries. It was government officials who acted here as the key agents of change.
In South Koreainefficiency factors were growing tension between the personnel and management of enterprises, uneven distribution of income between regions, lagging behind in infrastructure development, environmental problems, etc. The decrease in the effect of these factors turned out to be connected not only with the solution of the problem of the economic efficiency of public administration and improving the quality of life, but also with the problem of consolidating democracy. At the same time, the solution of the second problem seems to be a prerequisite for solving the first one, since the hypothesis is taken as a basis according to which democracy may not be a necessary condition for industrialization, but it is such for the social and political well-being of people in the post-industrial era.
Prerequisites for good governance, applicable to both South Korean and Japanese administrative system, are: administrative professionalism, administrative autonomy and party-political neutrality, representative composition of the administration, formation of an innovation climate, transparency of administrative activities and interaction of cultures .
Summing up, there are several main conditions that determine the degree of effectiveness of modern political-administrative management:
1) professionalism of officials , determined by the quality of their training, qualification confirmation and selection, as well as incentives for professional development. This factor implies the personal competence of officials, i.e., the possession of special knowledge, skills for effective information processing, possession modern methods making managerial decisions;
2) high Innovation potential officials , which can be defined as the susceptibility of officials to new management policies and technologies, which contributes to an increase in the social and economic efficiency of the work of administrations, as well as the personal activity of managers in the development and implementation of new management practices;
3) representativeness of the administration . Representativeness is an indicator of the degree of discrimination in the ranks of the state bureaucracy on gender, age, regional, national, religious and other grounds. It is directly related to the type of political culture and reflects the degree of real democracy in the state;
4) political autonomy and party-political neutrality , consisting in certain guarantees for managers in the event of a change of political leaders, subject to the full responsibility of officials for the adoption and execution specific solutions. This is directly related to the degree of independence of managers in making and implementing decisions, which, of course, affects the innovative potential and efficiency of officials;
5) openness or transparency of administrative activities . This factor is decisive for the formation of a system of effective political and administrative management, since without it any system becomes a potential source of corruption, abuse, and the real responsibility of officials is reduced to zero. In the new management paradigm built on the principles of social rather than economic efficiency, special role given to the open nature of the management system and the development of a feedback mechanism;
6) sufficient technical and economic support for administrative activities. In parallel with the process of formation of new management structures the lower levels of the hierarchy should be delegated the authority to dispose of budgetary funds with the simultaneous strengthening of financial discipline. To improve the efficiency of coordination and control over management activities in the context of strengthening the independence of individual management units, modern means of storing and processing information are needed.
5. Measuring the effectiveness of public administration
Evaluation of the effectiveness of public administration is an independent complex problem for the theory of administrative and public administration. The complexity of this problem predetermined Firstly, the absence in the public sector of a single indicator of results, which in the private sector is usually profit And, Secondly, « products of public sector organizations are generally difficult to measure and are not intended to compete ". Under these conditions, it is quite difficult to "find performance indicators that meet the ideal requirements of content, comparability, clarity, controllability, breadth of coverage, unlimitedness, significance and accessibility." However, to date, quite a lot has been created and tested. various methodologies for measuring efficiency, in which their creators tried to overcome the above shortcomings. Let's consider some of them.
A comprehensive methodology for assessing the effectiveness of the public administration system and quality public services developed employees of the Campbell Institute of Public Administration (USA) Since 1996, this methodology has been used to assess the effectiveness of the management of all states, the 35 most major cities USA, and 40 large counties. This technique is aimed at assessing the effectiveness of public administration in the following areas of activity:
1. Capital management (financial management);
2. Control by human resourses;
3. results management;
4. Information technology management .
The cumulative assessment of performance indicators in all four areas will allow, according to the authors of the methodology, to conduct comparative cross-national studies of the effectiveness of public administration.
Successful methodologies for evaluating effectiveness at the regional level, developed by the government of the province of Alberta (Canada) and the state of Virginia (USA). A common method for assessing comparative effectiveness municipal government is " comparison by comparable indicators with other bodies in similar functional areas". An illustrative example of such a technique is comparative analysis own activities of the administration of San Diego (USA) ( The Service Efforts and Accom-plishments document).
To the proven and already proven methods of measuring the quality and effectiveness of public and municipal administrations applies common in the states of Western and Central Europe "General assessment framework" ( Common Assessment Framework - CAF ). This methodology was developed as a result of close cooperation between EU member states in the late 90s. XX V. based on widely used in the private and public sectors quality management concepts ( Total Quality Management ). primary goal "Common Assessment Framework" - to develop an easy-to-use methodology for evaluating efficiency and quality, which could be used to conduct intra-organizational self-assessment. This goal is specified in a number of fundamental tasks.
The overall evaluation structure should:
1. Serve as a preliminary tool for self-assessment (testing) of the effectiveness of the management of organizations within the framework of a more general quality management strategy;
2. Contribute to comparative studies of efficiency in the public sector;
3. Provide a kind of bridge between various options use of quality management in the administrative policy of the EU countries.
Based on the goal and objectives CAF is based on two key principles:
1.Compatible with various organizational models state administrations.
2. Applicability for assessing the specifics of the quality of work of public sector organizations.
As follows from the scheme, the "General Assessment Framework" is a comprehensive tool that assesses the impact of changes in quality and efficiency on the organization's personnel, its customers (service consumers) and society as a whole. The key evaluation criteria include the quality of human resource management, leadership potential, as well as the completeness of the use of external resources and partnerships. This testifies on updating the socio-psychological component of management , attempts to evaluate, first of all, the quality and effectiveness of managerial relations. Specific content CAF and detailed instructions for using this technique are available on the Internet at the site www. eipa. nl/CAF/en/AssessmentForm-Results. htm . in all major European languages.
This methodology for assessing efficiency and quality is an important step towards the formation of a single European administrative space, contributing to the convergence of various national administrative systems, based on common standards of quality and efficiency of public administration.
A promising task For Russian administrative reforms is development of own methodology for assessing the effectiveness of public administration and quality standards for management procedures . It's obvious that Foreign experience in this area will be very useful and, with some adjustments, quite applicable in Russian conditions.
As a result of this chapter, it can be noted that the study of the effectiveness of public administration both in Russia and abroad develops at the endXX V. as an independent scientific direction , in which, with different approaches there are a number of general provisions and research trends:
- recognition of innovations in the field of administrative and public administration as a key factor in improving its efficiency,
- the need to shift the attention of researchers from the technical and economic spheres of reform to the socio-political,
- recognition for the latter of a higher development potential,
- the need to conceptualize the concept of "social efficiency" and the search for methods for its measurement,
- search for models of socially effective public administration.
6. Society in the context of political and administrative management
The relationship between society and the state is the most serious factor in the development of public administration. The state is both a political institution and an institution of government.
By achieving a monopoly on legitimate violence within the territory subject to it, the state gets the opportunity to implement its social functions as an institution for ordering and managing people's social relationships. As a management system, the state becomes an independent subject of all types of social relations inherent in society. In this aspect, it is a governing subsystem of society, functionally subordinate to the latter, and focused not on certain group (caste, estate, class, corporate, ethnic) interests, but to solve social problems, for the interests of the majority. In this regard, it approves the general rules and norms of behavior of citizens and social groups seeking to independently realize their own interests.
Interactions between the state and society cannot be of a simple mechanical nature. One state cannot guarantee the order and manageability of society.
There is a fundamental limitation of the controllability of society from one center. Attempts to create a state that completely subjugates the development of society, starting from the concept of Plato's ideal state and ending with totalitarian regimes XX century always led to negative results. From the point of view of management theory, the creation of such a model of relations between the state and society is based on two interrelated processes: conscious, purposeful complication control systems s, And simplification of the managed system , as a result, there is an attempt to achieve a situation where the managing system makes decisions for the managed one, and the actions of the managed system are completely determined by the decisions of the managing one. So, a billiard player hitting a ball with a cue sets the direction and speed of its movement.
However, such situations are relatively rare and are of no practical interest for the modern theory of public administration. As a rule, the controlled system (society) itself is quite complex. In this case, it becomes difficult to talk about making decisions for someone, even in cases where something like this seems to take place. So, a rider on a horse cannot, and does not try, control its movements: it is only important for him that she rides in the right direction.
Consequently, the state as a macro-management body is only able to perform its main functions in combination and interaction with the processes of self-organization and self-government at the level of society and social groups.
In a situation where the managed system is much more complicated than the managing one (in such a situation, for example, there are state or local authorities in relation to the territories they manage), the nature of the interaction between the manager and the managed takes on a completely different character. First of all, the control system in such cases is part of the system controlled, as if by its special body, integrated with it into a single whole.
Systems and models of public administration do not remain unchanged. They change depending on the level of complexity of the social order, which is either achieved by the society, or to which it aspires. In the period of the New Age, humanity has repeatedly tried to find an ideal model of government, justifying the role of the state in managing society. In different periods of history were theoretically substantiated andimplemented in practice liberal, socialist and mixed models of public administration.
liberal model , formed in the bosom of liberal ideology, gave priority to the processes of self-organization and self-management of society, embodied in a system of free market and competition . Liberalism, argued F. Hayek, is a civilization based on the principles of individualism. “His main feature,” he wrote, “is respect for the individual as such, i.e. recognition of the absolute sovereignty of the views and inclinations of a person in the sphere of his life”. There is competition The best way management of the activities of individuals, it allows you to do without social public control. The state is most often an inefficient institution of governance . Therefore, it should not interfere in the processes of economic development, restrict competition, carry out central planning and market regulation. The activity of the government will be considered the better, the less it is engaged in management..
socialist model comes out from the inefficiency of private enterprise and private property, competition and the free market, it favors public ownership, the pursuit of the public interest as opposed to the private, and public administration and regulation of the economy . In contrast to liberalism, the socialist model affirms the initial efficiency of public administration, the ability of the modern state to take on most of the responsibility for the development of society and each individual. Instead of free competition as an internal impetus for economic and social progress, the socialist model provides as basic administrative methods public administration, the use of administrative-political and moral-ideological incentives for organization and organizational behavior. This model was most clearly implemented in the USSR during the period when IV Stalin was in power, later attempts to borrow it took place in other countries (for example, China, North Korea, Cuba).
mixed model , combining elements neoliberal and socialist concept and social practice appeared in the second half XX centuries. It reflects the current objective trends in the development of society, the increasing complexity of organizing public life and government, the growing need for planning relationships between society and nature, and for regulating interactions between the individual and society. In the economy, this trend is realized in the choice of a socially oriented market model of economic relations, which combines the freedom of existence of various forms of ownership, an increase in the social, economic, environmental functions of the state, in the development and implementation of comprehensive national, regional and international government programs in various fields the life of society.
A transaction is an agreement followed by mutual concessions.
Literature
State policy and management. Textbook. In 2 hours / Ed. . L.V. Smorgunova. M.: ROSSPEN, 2006-2007.
Political and administrative management: Textbook. / Under the total. ed. V.S. Komarovsky, L.V. Smorgunov. M.: Publishing House of the RAGS, 2004.
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Plan
1. How to evaluate the effectiveness of enterprise management?
2. Efficiency of enterprise management from different angles
3. The effectiveness of strategic enterprise management
4. The effectiveness of tactical enterprise management
5. How to measure the effectiveness of enterprise management?
1. How to evaluate the effectiveness of enterprise management?
Most often, the concept of efficiency is used in the financial and economic field of management, which is an exact discipline and operates with numbers, formulas, coefficients. In this regard, a certain stereotype has developed, and when it comes to the effectiveness of enterprise management, people expect to receive a formula with exact data in which these data are added, multiplied, divided and subtracted. The result should be a certain coefficient reflecting the effectiveness of management. This method can measure the effectiveness of management, for example, investments, capital, working capital, but for understanding the overall efficiency of enterprise management, this approach is unacceptable.
Studying the overall efficiency of enterprise management, we will get a number of indicators, some of which will be expressed in numbers, others are expressed in verbal formulations. These indicators can only be useful to those who have a sufficient level of experience and qualifications in management and can catch trends, trends and draw a general conclusion.
I'll draw an analogy. If the inhabitants of an African tribe bring a disassembled machine gun with cartridges, then they will find use for its parts in their household, but they will not think of collecting it and using it as a weapon. If they are shown the machine in action, and then dismantled in their presence, then they will not drag it to their huts, but will try to assemble and use it, then everything will depend on their quick wits. The conclusion is that if a person does not know what object should be made up of elements and does not understand the purpose of each element, then he perceives these elements each separately, understanding their purpose in his own way. At the same time, I note that the machine gun will not shoot if it is incorrectly assembled, or if one part is missing.
Enterprise management is a little more complicated than a Kalashnikov assault rifle, therefore, when evaluating management effectiveness, it is necessary to take into account who conducts the assessment (from what "bump" he considers the enterprise) and how he draws generalizing conclusions (is he able to correctly connect the elements into a coherent picture).
2. Enterprise management efficiencyview from different angles
It is impossible to add up a holistic picture of management effectiveness without considering the enterprise from different angles.
The overall efficiency of managing an enterprise (organization) consists of the effectiveness of managing individual functional subsystems - marketing, human resources, financial resources, production, logistics, and so on, and also largely depends on how the management of all subsystems is balanced at the level of general management, that is, at the general management level.
Also, the effectiveness of enterprise (organization) management is considered from a strategic and operational-tactical point of view.
Also, the effectiveness of enterprise management must be considered in the context of various enterprise systems, for example:
Efficiency of the resource attraction system.
Efficiency of the system for efficient use of the organization's resources.
Efficiency of the business process coordination system.
The effectiveness of the control system in all areas of the enterprise.
The effectiveness of the enterprise goal-orientation system.
The effectiveness of the decision-making system.
The effectiveness of the personnel motivation system.
The effectiveness of the system of delegation and distribution of responsibility.
The effectiveness of the system for assessing the activities of the enterprise.
The effectiveness of the forecasting system.
The effectiveness of the personnel training system.
Also, the effectiveness of enterprise management has two important dimensions - economic and productive. Effective measurement reports on how well the company successfully performs the tasks in the field of ensuring the required volume of production, sales and other marketing tasks. And the economic dimension reports how costly this way of achieving the goals is.
Another division of control areas must be carried out in two categories: object-logical control (OLU) and socio-psychological control (SPU).
Object-logical control (OLU). Management actions performed: to anticipate, predict, analyze, plan, decide, organize (develop and implement, ...) order, give instructions, set tasks, coordinate, control.
The objects of control are: a process, a function, information, as well as a person, a department - as an element of the process, a function executor, etc.
Object-logical management is often called administrative.
Socio-psychological management (SPU). Management actions performed: motivate (call, inspire, encourage and punish, etc.), train, develop, instruct, take care, provide support.
The objects of management are: a person - as a social object, which is an emotional and spiritual personality, having its own views, values, interests; group - as a society involved in processes, performing functions and tasks.
Only a harmonious combination of these two components ultimately creates a full-fledged management and opens the way to effective management:
Effective management = OLU + SPU.
When all these factors come together single system, then a multidimensional model is obtained, in which a complex interweaving of causal relationships can be traced. Seeing such a complex picture of interdependencies, most owners do not even try to understand it, since they are entrepreneurs at their core, and the routine of system management makes them bored. They usually go in three ways:
Leave the enterprise at the level of development that allows for the usual directive management.
Invent your simplified control model and try to improve it by trial and error.
Put effective management with the help of specialists in management and transfer the overall management of the enterprise to a professional manager.
The first path leads to the gradual attenuation and death of the enterprise, since if the business does not develop in a competitive environment, then the company loses in competition stronger opponents. The exception is enterprises that have found on the market and occupied their very small niche, which is not interesting for stronger competitors. If the enterprise is faced with the task of reaching a new level of competition, then it is necessary to increase the efficiency of management.
The second path leads to disappointment, because in order to invent your own original management system, you need to deeply understand the principles of effective management. If the basic principles of effective management are not violated, then it is quite possible to create your own original management system, which many leading companies have proven in practice. But these companies created their management models, which at first glance seem easy to understand, having gone through a stage of deep study of the principles of efficiency, and only after that they created their management systems.
The third way is potentially advantageous, but only if the business owner responsibly approached the transfer of control. If the transfer of control was not carried out technologically competently, then the consequences of such a transfer can be the most deplorable, up to a complete loss of business.
The effectiveness of strategic enterprise management has a higher priority than operational management, although both of these components are essential for business success. Strategic management indicates the direction of movement (the direction vector of all the efforts of the organization) and creates systems for tracking the course. Operational management ensures the speed of advancement of the enterprise along the selected strategic direction. Why is the strategy given higher priority? I'll try to explain simply. If the direction is chosen correctly, then the enterprise, even at a low speed, can get ahead of its competitors. But if the direction is chosen incorrectly, then the enterprise can move rapidly in the wrong direction and, accordingly, will not achieve its goal.
3. Efficiency of strategic enterprise management
Decisions about the fate of a business (enterprise, organization) are made at the top level of management and this is called strategic management. In most Ukrainian companies, the strategic vision successful way to compete and conquer markets is the mission of individual highly qualified specialists, and sometimes even one founder. Strategists in the fog of the future look at the goal and orient the organization towards it. What should the organization be like in N-years, what will its products be, and why will they be in demand, why will consumers prefer them over competitors, and so on. This is the strategic vision (sometimes called vision).
But a path must be laid to the goal - certain directions of the organization's actions. The path to a long-term goal consists of many transitional stages. A step-by-step transition from one stage to another is planned taking into account the capabilities of the organization, the state of the market and the influence of competitors. That's what it is strategic plan development.
At the moment, there is more negative attitude towards strategic plans and strategic planning, and this pours a balm on the soul of those entrepreneurs for whom the development and formalization of such plans is a terrible torment.
In my opinion, the negative attitude towards strategic planning is another distortion, and it arose as a reaction to the failures of corporations, which replaced live activity in the strategic field with a bureaucratic planning system.
One of the great commanders expressed the idea that plans in most cases lose their relevance as soon as hostilities begin. But at the same time, he emphasized the great importance of the planning process, during which many scenarios of a possible development of events are played out, resources and capabilities are thought out and calculated, the interaction of units is being worked out, thereby high-quality preparation for the upcoming military operations is carried out.
Strategic planning is necessary precisely because we cannot predict anything... Strategic planning does not deal with future decisions, but with the prospects of present decisions. Solutions exist only in the present. The question that confronts those who accept strategic decision, is not what his organization would do tomorrow, but what we must do today to prepare for an unknown tomorrow.
One and the same substance for a person can be both a poison and a medicine - it all depends on the dose and method of application. The same is the case with strategic planning.
If the strategic plan is treated as a formal document that is drawn up once a year or several years and must be strictly observed after approval, then such planning is poison for the organization.
In this case, the effectiveness of enterprise management will be unsatisfactory and disastrous for the enterprise. And if strategic planning is seen as a process of teaching an organization to predict events, preparing for conducting competitive hostilities, and the plan itself is a strategic guideline that must be adjusted in the implementation process, then this approach is of great benefit to the enterprise. In this case, the efficiency of enterprise management is significantly increased.
Many business founders have entrepreneurial talent, correctly determine the strategic priorities for business development on an intuitive level, and such strategies are winning for the enterprise. But one should not confuse intuitive foresight with management based on this foresight.
If the directions of development are not known to the employees of the enterprise, there is no sense of strategic direction, the strategy is not divided into goals and objectives of each department and employee, then I call this intuitive management of one person.
In reality, such intuitive strategic management is possible only up to a certain scale of business. Since many decisions in the field of operational management are based on strategic guidelines, only the managing owner of the business can make informed correct decisions. His subordinates do not have enough information to make the right decisions.
At the initial stage of development of an enterprise (organization), as a rule, a directive management style is used, and all important business processes are closed to the owner of the business. Directive management style means management through direct instructions (directives).
A typical picture of directive management. The subordinate, having received a direct instruction (directive) to perform something, begins to fulfill it. At the same time, the formulation of the problem implies a certain scenario for the development of the situation.
If the development of the situation deviates from the scenario, then the subordinate becomes at a standstill and is forced to disturb the leader again so that he makes a decision and gives him new instructions.
While there are not so many subordinates and business processes are all in sight, the owner can cope with this flow of requests for decision-making and issuance of directives. But as soon as the business begins to grow, the managing owner becomes a "brake to processes."
Subordinates wait hours and days for decisions, while processes are frozen at this time, as the main decision-making center is overloaded.
I will not dwell on the emotional aspects of such a situation, when the owner feels like a driven horse, I will only say that such a situation is extremely harmful for business and can lead to serious economic losses and provoke problems at the strategic level - serious complications in relations with customers, suppliers , within the team, the deterioration of the brand image and so on. The effectiveness of the directive management of an enterprise sharply rushes to zero as soon as the enterprise crosses a certain border of business activity.
When an enterprise has a strategic vision, strategic guidelines are indicated, then the enterprise must be carried out along the chosen path to the desired goal as quickly as possible at the lowest cost. These are the tasks of operational-tactical control.
4. Efficiency of tactical enterprise management
When there is a strategic vision and a strategic plan, then the organization must be led along the chosen path to the desired goal. In order for the forces and resources of the organization to be directed to solving strategic problems, it is necessary to properly manage resources daily and hourly - human, financial, material, temporary.
Long-term strategic goals are achieved through the daily efforts of many ordinary employees. One big step of the organization consists of many small steps of its ordinary workers.
When employees move harmoniously in the right direction, this indicates that the people organizing them are good managers and, in general, the efficiency of enterprise management is at a fairly high level.
The effectiveness of enterprise management can be judged by how ordinary employees understand and perceive information about goals and objectives, are able to make the right decisions at their level, act adequately to the situation, and are focused on solving the problems of the enterprise; which arise conflict situations how they are resolved; how the actions of employees and departments are coordinated, how they are supported by the timely allocation of resources, and so on.
Table 1 - Indicators of management effectiveness and areas of enterprise management that affect them
|
Management performance indicators |
Influencing areas of enterprise management |
|
|
The employee understands his tasks correctly |
Development, description of business processes; Goal setting (clear interpretation); Development and communication of a strategy for achieving goals; Task scheduling; Setting goals; Company's mission; Corporate culture; The employee understands his contribution to the overall result, to the intermediate results. Task executors reach the task, divided into blocks that they understand in an understandable form. Control of the passage and perception of information |
|
|
The employee has necessary qualifications and competence |
Correct vision of the need for human resources; Recruitment; Arrangement of personnel; Teaching the principles and methods of personal effectiveness; Incentive boost professional excellence; Education |
|
|
The employee is motivated (his interests are in accordance with the interests of the organization) |
Development, description of business processes; Adequate evaluation of results; System financial incentives(reward based on results); Accounting for individual motivations; Timely prevention of destructive conflicts; Elimination of system conflicts; Motivation career development; Career planning |
|
|
The worker has the necessary energy to complete tasks |
Favorable working environment; Feeling of belonging to the "right" cause; Favorable moral climate; A state of positive stress; The company provides an opportunity to restore strength and energy; Learning techniques for recovery, stress relief; Promoting and promoting a healthy lifestyle. |
|
|
The employee is correctly oriented in general rules and principles (has a sense of a general orientation) |
Company's mission; Corporate culture; Values, principles, rules; Disciplinary Rules; ethical standards; Control of the passage and perception of information |
|
|
The employee receives timely and in full necessary information to complete tasks. |
Development, description of business processes; Thoughtful Information system; Willingness to cooperate; Control of the passage and perception of information; |
|
|
When performing tasks, the interests of the employee (department) in accordance with the interests of other employees (departments) |
Development, description of business processes; System of material incentives (reward based on results); Accounting for individual motivations; Timely prevention of destructive conflicts; Elimination of system conflicts; Commitment to cooperation |
|
|
The actions of workers are coordinated in time and space |
Development, description of business processes; Creation of coordination centers; Planning training; Action planning; Control of results; Analysis; Adjustment |
|
|
The actions of employees are supported by the timely allocation of resources (financial, human, temporary) |
Financial planning and forecasting; Control cash flows; System of planning and distribution of workload on staff; Proper allocation of resources (budgeting); Operational budget management; Resource control |
|
|
Decisions are made in a timely manner and with high quality |
Development, description of business processes; Possession of up-to-date information for decision-making (information system, desire for cooperation); Decision-making criteria are clear (mission, values, attitudes, rules, understanding of the goals and objectives of the enterprise); Delegation (decision centers should not be overloaded); Distribution of powers and responsibilities; Decision training |
The actions of workers are coordinated in time and space.
Development, description of business processes; Creation of coordination centers; Planning training; Action planning; Control of results; Analysis; Adjustment.
The actions of employees are supported by the timely allocation of resources (financial, human, temporary).
Financial planning and forecasting; Cash flow management; System of planning and distribution of workload on staff; Proper allocation of resources (budgeting); Operational budget management; Resource control.
Tasks and problems are solved in order of their priority importance.
Development, description of business processes; Decision-making criteria are clear (mission, values, attitudes, rules, understanding of the goals and objectives of the enterprise); Learning to prioritize; Agreeing on priorities;
Decisions are made in a timely manner and with high quality.
Development, description of business processes; Possession of up-to-date information for decision-making (information system, desire for cooperation); Decision-making criteria are clear (mission, values, attitudes, rules, understanding of the goals and objectives of the enterprise); Delegation (decision centers should not be overloaded); Distribution of powers and responsibilities; Decision making training;
5. How to measure the effectiveness of enterprise management?
If the existing management system at the enterprise does not even correspond to the current business tasks, then it becomes a significant brake on development, lowers competitiveness and negatively affects performance. When an enterprise is aimed at developing, expanding, entering new territories, new sales markets, where it will meet in competition with more strong competitors, then the problem of reorganization of the management system becomes very relevant. Therefore, if the task is to evaluate the effectiveness of managing a developing enterprise, then first of all it is necessary to establish the goals that the enterprise is striving for, and then to diagnose existing system management of the enterprise for compliance with future challenges.
Evaluation of management effectiveness is carried out according to many parameters. For different enterprises, this set of parameters remains almost unchanged, but the parameters themselves have different priorities for each enterprise. According to the Pareto principle, 80% of efforts and attention should be paid to 20% of the main subsystems, functions, business processes that have the greatest impact on performance. The challenge is how to identify those top 20% and focus on them.
There is no single immutable standard by which any organization can receive a rating for the effectiveness of its enterprise management. It can only be said with certainty that management must be so effective that the enterprise achieves its goals. And each enterprise has its own goals, moreover, at each stage life cycle enterprises' goals and objectives change due to the natural growth of the business, and are also significantly adjusted by the goals of the business owners.
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Management efficiency- a complex and diverse concept, the meaning of which lies in the fact that the entire management process, from goal setting to the final result of the activity, should be carried out at the lowest cost or with the greatest efficiency
The concept of management efficiency largely coincides with the concept of the efficiency of the organization's production activities. However, production management has its own specific economic characteristics. The main criterion for the effectiveness of management is the level of efficiency of the managed object. The problem of management efficiency is an integral part of management economics, which includes consideration of:
managerial potential, i.e., the totality of all the resources that the management system has and uses. Managerial potential appears in material and intellectual forms;
Management costs and expenses, which are determined by the content, organization, technology and scope of work to implement the relevant management functions;
The nature of managerial work;
management efficiency, that is, the effectiveness of people's actions in the process of the organization's activities, in the process of realizing interests, in achieving certain goals. Efficiency is the effectiveness of the functioning of the system and the management process as the interaction of the managed and control systems, that is, the integrated result of the interaction of the management components. Efficiency shows the extent to which the governing body implements the goals, achieves the planned results. The effectiveness of management is manifested in the efficiency of production, is part of the efficiency of production. The results of the action, correlated with the goal and costs, are the content of efficiency as a managerial category.
A number of factors influence the effectiveness of a manager's activity: the employee's potential, his ability to perform certain work; means of production; social aspects of the activities of the staff and the team as a whole; organization culture. All these factors act together, in an integration unity.
Thus, the effectiveness of management is one of the main indicators of improving management, determined by comparing the results of management and the resources spent to achieve them. It is possible to evaluate the effectiveness of management by comparing the received profit and management costs. But such a simplified estimate is not always correct, because:
1) the result of management is not always in profit;
2) such an assessment leads to a direct and indirect result, which hides the role of management in achieving it. Profit often acts as an indirect result;
3) the result of management can be not only economic, but also social, socio-economic;
4) management costs can not always be clearly identified.
Efficient Management consistent with the purpose and strategy of the organization. If management activity fully or partially solves the task, is embodied in the expected result, and ensures its achievement based on the optimal use of available resources, then it is considered effective. In the first case we are talking about external efficiency, in the second - about internal. External efficiency is otherwise called profitability, and internal efficiency is called efficiency, showing the price that had to be paid for the result obtained (for this it is correlated with the amount of costs). The more the result exceeds the costs, the more economical the activity. Management efficiency can also be spoken of as potential or real. Potential efficiency is estimated preliminary, while the real one is determined by the degree of achievement of the goals themselves, the results obtained in practice. Since different methods are used in management, it is also legitimate to evaluate their effectiveness.
The dependence of the level of the overall efficiency of the organization on one or another level of both of its components can be conditionally represented as follows: E = E1 * E2, where E is the level of overall efficiency;
E1 -- the level of external efficiency (the degree of use of market opportunities);
E2 -- the level of internal efficiency (the degree of use of internal capabilities).
Speaking about the overall efficiency as a combination of its two components E1 and E2, we thereby emphasize its dual nature. It's obvious that high level component E1 provides an increase in the efficiency of E in general. Hence the conclusion: in order for an organization to obtain the highest possible results, it is necessary to realize its market opportunities to the fullest extent and it is enough to ensure the highest possible level of its internal efficiency. The production of goods that are obviously not in demand on the market makes any efforts to increase the efficiency of this production meaningless. On the other hand, the production of a commodity in demand at a low level of its efficiency (high production costs, high cost) will eventually lead to a decrease in demand for it and a decrease in market share. In both cases, the level of overall efficiency remains significantly below the maximum possible. According to the formula of overall efficiency, it is clear that all the efforts of the manager to increase sales of products in order to achieve success for the enterprise will always come to naught if his efforts in the administrative field, in in turn, will not lead to high internal efficiency of the organization. So, the effectiveness of management is ensured through activities to optimize costs and increase efficiency in all areas of management:
In human resource management;
In production management or when creating an operating system;
When determining the methods and structures of management.
(English terms CPM, BPM, EPM) is a set of management processes (planning, organization of execution, control and analysis) that allow a business to define strategic goals and then evaluate and manage activities to achieve these goals with the optimal use of available resources. This is a management system built on the principles of business value management.
Performance Management covers the whole range of tasks in the field of strategic, financial, marketing and operational management of the company and includes the use of such management technologies such as strategy modeling, balanced scorecards, process-oriented planning and cost analysis, budgeting and business modeling, consolidated management reporting and analysis, monitoring of key performance indicators related to the strategy.
Performance Management includes three main activities (in all areas of management without exception):
1. goal setting
2. analysis of the values of indicators characterizing the achievement of the organization's goals, and
3. management actions of managers based on the results of the analysis, aimed at improving the future activities of the organization to achieve the goals.
Using performance management techniques, owners seek to communicate strategy to all levels of the organization, translate strategy into actions and metrics that measure these actions, and use analysis to find cause and effect relationships that, when meaningful, help make informed decisions.
The growing role of management in a market economy as a result of the organization gaining economic freedom and full responsibility for its results leads to the involvement of additional resources (labor, financial, material) in the management sphere. For the owner of the enterprise, it is important not only to spend resources for management, but also to what extent management gives strategic advantages to the enterprise in the market, enhances its competitiveness, and maintains the social significance of the enterprise. In a competitive environment, leaders must care about productivity and efficiency.
FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION
URAL ACADEMY OF PUBLIC SERVICE
Faculty of retraining of state and municipal employees
Management efficiency
Essay
by Control Theory
Is done by a student
checked
Ekaterinburg
Introduction…………………………………………..…………………………………3
1. The concept of efficiency in management………………………………………… 5
2. General and special aspects of management effectiveness……………..5
3. Optimum and non-optimal efficiency…………………………………………………7
4. The specifics of the efficiency and productivity of managerial work…………………………………………………………………………………….8
5. Economic efficiency of managerial work…………………13
6. Efficiency of social management……………………………………..15
7. The specifics of measuring the effectiveness of management activities in state and municipal government……………………………….17
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………..…….19
List of used sources and literature………………………....22
INTRODUCTION
Throughout the life of human society, there have been those who lead and those who are led. But until the beginning of the 20th century, people attached little importance to the very concept of management. Leaders (clerks, stewards and others) ruled based on intuition. At the time, they didn't think about it seriously. From the beginning of the 20th century, management begins to stand out as an independent science and continues to develop at the present time. Throughout the development of this science, the focus has been on how a leader should lead in order for the organization to work effectively.
The modern development of society shows that the successful operation of an organization largely depends on skillful and competent leadership.
The purpose of this essay is to consider the effectiveness of managerial work, the effectiveness of management in general and methodological approaches to its assessment. Labor efficiency in management does not appear directly in the form of products produced at the workplace. The result of the activities of the employees of the management apparatus is included in the overall efficiency of the enterprise. As in the total labor costs, a certain part is occupied by management labor, so a certain share of the production effect must be attributed to management.
There are many approaches to assessing the effectiveness of managerial work. The proposed methods during their preliminary testing in practice gave positive results and showed an indirect relationship between the direct results of managerial work and the final results of the functioning of the management apparatus.
The modern administrative apparatus is a very complex mechanism with diverse functional responsibilities and different content of work. The system of indicators should be universal, applicable to various areas of management activity. The more actively it will play its role, the more objectively it will characterize the degree of achievement of the tasks put forward.
Evaluation of effectiveness is an important element in the development of design and planning decisions, which allows to determine the level of progressiveness of the current structure, projects under development or planned activities, and is carried out in order to select the most rational version of the structure or a way to improve it. The effectiveness of the organizational structure should be assessed at the design stage, when analyzing the management structures of existing organizations for planning and implementing measures to improve management.
The criterion of effectiveness in comparing different options for the organizational structure is the possibility of the most complete and sustainable achievement of the ultimate goals of the management system at relatively lower costs for its operation.
In the methodology of the organizational mechanism, methods for assessing and analyzing the effectiveness of the management system occupy a special place. Management efficiency should be understood as the creation of favorable conditions for the achievement of high results by the enterprise team within the stipulated time frame at the lowest cost.
To assess the effectiveness of management, it is important to determine the compliance of the management system and its organizational structure with the management object. This finds expression in the balance of the composition of functions and goals of management, the correspondence of the number of employees to the volume and complexity of work, the completeness of providing the required information, the provision of processes for managing technological means, taking into account their nomenclature.
Important requirements are the ability to adequately reflect the dynamism of controlled processes, balance and consistency of indicators. When evaluating the effectiveness of individual measures to improve the management system, it is allowed to use the basic requirements for their choice - the maximum compliance of each indicator with the target orientation of the event and the completeness of the reflection of the achieved effect.
All of the above methodological and practical matters will be discussed later in this abstract.
1. The concept of efficiency in management
Many theoretical problems of efficiency, which consist in the uncertainty of certain of its aspects - in particular, areas of application, types, methods of measurement - are rooted in the insufficient specification of this concept, in the lack of elaboration of its classification. The lack of classification of types of efficiency leads to the fact that general concept used in various specific situations, without regard to its modification. However, it is fundamentally impossible to describe the differences between the types of efficiency with its help. Moreover, the general concept of efficiency is qualitative, and therefore does not focus on the measurement of efficiency.
From what has been said, it follows that the concept of "efficiency" must be specified. It was developed by economic science and means the ratio of costs and results of activities. The economic origin of the concept of "efficiency" still affects the degree of its development. In particular, it can be noted that in relation to commercial organizations, this phenomenon is not only well studied, but is also an object of management. In the field of state and municipal management, it is at the stage of theoretical discussion; it is not yet possible to talk about its use to improve management practice. “As has been noted more than once,” writes G.V. Atamanchuk, - the main problem of public administration in general, and practical activities for the formation and implementation of its multifaceted manifestations in particular, is the problem of the conditionality, validity and effectiveness of all managerial functions, organizational structures, forms of methods and stages of managerial activity" 1 . The mechanical transfer of management experience to the field of public administration does not give positive results, therefore, it is necessary to analyze the concept of "efficiency", to identify the general and the special in its content.
2. General and special aspects of management efficiency
General aspects of management effectiveness 1 . The general aspect (sign) of efficiency is the ratio of costs and results of a particular activity. This means that efficiency as a phenomenon is a kind of relationship, and not a property or connection, and the relationship is quantitative, since when comparing, one always speaks of greater or lesser efficiency. At the same time, efficiency is a kind of relationship, because not every relationship is efficiency 2 . (For example, the ratio of the length and width of an object). As a specific ratio, efficiency is characterized by a certain value. However, it should be borne in mind that the value of efficiency can change for the same type of activity, increase or decrease.
Specific aspects of management effectiveness 3 . What signs are specific in efficiency? These are primarily the types of costs and benefits. In the same activity, one can single out direct and final results, whereby the efficiency appears in a twofold form.
The direct results of the activity should include those that serve as a means of carrying out other activities. The final ones are changes in the activities of other people. So, in relation to public administration, the behavior of other people acts as the end result.
Public administration is ultimately focused on changing the behavior of citizens or legal entities. This change is achieved either by prescribing certain behavior through norms (which, without such precepts, may not take place), or by prohibiting any actions (which will be carried out without them). The prohibition on actions for a controlled subject means abstaining from any actions, and this can be considered as an act.
Thus, both prescribed and prohibited actions are, in a certain sense, artifacts, they are consciously and deliberately provoked by the state. These artifacts, like any other, require certain costs, consisting of the costs of maintaining deputies, employees who control their implementation, technical means, and so on. Since the actions of performers require costs, are not free, they are characterized by efficiency, and the actions of managers affect this efficiency.
However, there is also direct efficiency in public administration. For example, the parliament issues laws that are the result of the activities of this body, and this activity requires certain costs. From the fact that there are results and costs in this activity, it can be concluded that the concept of “efficiency” can be applied to parliamentary activity, since the costs and results are presented in a certain ratio. And according to this concept, the efficiency of the parliament will increase if it makes more decisions in a given period of time.
The difference between direct and final efficiency is also observed in relation to the activities of private organizations. Thus, the cost of producing a product or service is an indicator of direct efficiency, and the cost of creating and using a product or service is an indicator of final efficiency.
Immediate efficiency differs from final efficiency primarily in the scope of its applicability. Immediate efficiency fixes the internal parameters of the activity, and the final one - the external parameters of the same activity. It follows from this that the named types of efficiency complement each other, neither one can replace the other, both of them are general and universal. From the fact of the duality of efficiency, it also follows that when comparing types of activities in terms of efficiency, homogeneous types of efficiency should be compared. It is impossible to compare the internal efficiency of one activity with the external efficiency of another, and vice versa.
External and internal efficiency are incomparable and relatively autonomous. Their quantitative ratios are characterized by the following situations. High internal (immediate) efficiency can be accompanied by high external efficiency. Low internal efficiency, in turn, excludes high external efficiency. This follows from the fact that external efficiency is leading, it is clear that external efficiency requires a corresponding internal one. It can be argued that there is no automatic correspondence between the two forms of efficiency; some mechanisms are needed to maintain such a correspondence. For private firms, such a mechanism is competition, which necessitates external efficiency, which can be realized only through internal efficiency. There is no competition in the field of public administration, so there may not be a demand for external efficiency, while internal efficiency is low and often presented as the only one: work is judged by the number of meetings, decisions, and events.
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