home » Business from scratch » Social differentiation of society. Social differentiation of modern societies Differentiation of social life

Social differentiation of society. Social differentiation of modern societies Differentiation of social life

Modern concepts of social stratification.

Certain differences in the social status of people took place in the early stages of the development of the human community, but this was based not on social, but natural (natural) differentiation- natural physical-genetic and demographic differences between people. The social status of a person was determined by gender, age, the presence of certain physical and personal qualities.

However, the decisive moments that determine the actual structure of society are factors associated not with natural physical, genetic and demographic differences between people, but with the phenomena of social differentiation.

Social differentiation- a product of a higher level of development of civilization. This complex phenomenon is no longer generated by natural (natural), but by social factors of life and, above all, by the objective need of society for the division of labor.

Differentiation of activities is manifested in the form of social differences between groups of people according to the nature of their labor activity and functions, and consequently, by lifestyle, interests and needs.

Social differentiation is often referred to as "horizontal differentiation". The parameters that describe horizontal differentiation are called "nominal parameters", in contrast to the "rank parameters" used to characterize people in a hierarchical way. Hierarchy (from the Greek hierarchia - literally sacred power) is a form of building complex social systems based on subordination and subordination, when social groups are, as it were, “higher” or “lower” on the social ladder.

Nominal differences are established in society in the process of natural differences between people and as an element of the social division of labor. On the basis of these differences between people in society, it is impossible to determine which of them occupies a “higher” and who is “lower” place in the social structure (example: you cannot put a man above a woman just because he is a man, as well as people of different nationalities).

Horizontal differentiation cannot give a complete picture of the social structuring of society. In full, the social structure of society can be described only in two planes - horizontal and vertical.

Vertical structuring arises as a result of the unequal distribution of the results of the social division of labor between people. Where the structural differentiation of groups takes on a hierarchical character, determined on the basis of rank parameters, one speaks of social stratification.

Based on the above remarks, we can say that social stratification means a form of differentiation of society that takes the form social hierarchy- vertical differentiation of the population into groups and strata unequal in their social status. It is a hierarchically organized structure of social inequality.

American sociologist P. Blau developed a system of parameters that describe the position of an individual in society in the vertical and horizontal planes.

Nominal parameters: gender, race, ethnicity, religion, place of residence, area of activity, political orientation, language.

Rank parameters: education, income, wealth, prestige, power, origin, age, administrative position, intelligence.

With the help of nominal parameters, the adjacent positions of individuals are studied; on the basis of rank parameters, a hierarchical or status structure is described.

At the present stage of research in the field of social stratification, a number of new paradigms have emerged. For decades after the Second World War, the main conceptual model of Western sociology was class theory. K. Marx and its modifications. This was due to the existence of a number of societies that built their organization on the basis of Marxist ideas. The failure of the socialist experiment on a global scale led to the loss of popularity of neo-Marxism in sociology and the massive turn of researchers to other ideas, such as theories M. Foucault And N. Luman.

N. Luhmann considers the very concept of social inequality as the result of an outdated discursive model of sociological thinking. In his opinion, social differences in modern Western society are not decreasing, but increasing, and there is no reason to expect that inequality will ever be eliminated. The negative meaning of the concept of inequality stems from the evaluative-discursive nature of the concept of social stratification. According to N. Luhmann, one should change the paradigm and consider society not as stratified, but as differentiated, that is, use the concept of functional differentiation instead of the concept of stratification. Differentiation- a value-neutral concept, meaning only that in society there are internal divisions, boundaries that it itself produces and maintains.

In addition, the class concept of stratification began to be increasingly criticized due to the emergence of other aspects of inequality - gender, racial, ethnic. Marxist theory considered all these aspects as derivatives of class inequality, arguing that with its elimination they would disappear by themselves. However, for example, feminists have shown that social inequality of the sexes existed long before the emergence of classes and persisted in Soviet society. Sociologists who study these aspects of inequality argue that they cannot be reduced to classes: they exist as offline forms social relations.

Recognition of the fact that different types social inequality cannot be explained with the help of a unified monistic theory, leads to the realization of the complexity of the real phenomenon of inequality and the assertion new paradigm in sociology - postmodern paradigms.

American sociologist L. Warner proposed his hypothesis of social stratification. As the defining features of the group, he singled out four parameters: income, prestige of the profession, education, ethnicity. Based on these characteristics, he divided the ruling elite into six groups: the highest, the highest intermediate, the middle-highest, the middle-intermediate, the intermediate-highest, the intermediate-intermediate.

Another American sociologist B. Barber conducted a stratification according to six indicators: 1) prestige, profession, power and might; 2) income level; 3) level of education; 4) the degree of religiosity; 5) the situation of relatives; 6) ethnicity.

French sociologist A. Touraine considers that all these criteria are already outdated and proposes to define groups on access to information. The dominant position, in his opinion, is occupied by those people who have access to the greatest amount of information.

Postmodern sociology in contrast to previous concepts, he argues that social reality is complex and pluralistic. It considers society as a set of separate social groups with their own lifestyles, their own culture and behavior, and new social movements as a real reflection of the changes taking place in these groups. In addition, she suggests that any unified theory of social inequality is more a kind of modern myth, something like a "grand narrative", than a real description of a complex and multifaceted social reality, which is not subject to a causal explanation. Therefore, in its context social analysis takes a more modest form, refraining from too broad generalizations and focusing on specific fragments of social reality. Conceptual constructs based on the most general categories such as "classes" or "sex" give way to concepts like "difference", "divergence" and "fragmentation". For example, representatives of poststructuralism D. Harway And D. Riley It is believed that the use of the category “women” indicates a simplified binary understanding of gender stratification and veils its real complexity. Note that the concept of fragmentation is not new. The recognition of the fact that classes have internal divisions goes back to the era of K. Marx and M. Weber. However, interest in studying the nature of fragmentation has now intensified, as it has become clear that it takes a variety of forms. There are four types of fragmentation:

1) internal fragmentation - intraclass divisions;

2) extrinsic fragmentation arising from the interplay of different dynamics of difference, for example, when gender practices differ between men and women according to their age, ethnicity, and class;

3) fragmentation that grows out of processes of social change, for example, caused by the feminization of modern labor relations when there is a polarization between young women who have an education and career prospects, and older women with less high qualifications who do not have such prospects and are still engaged in low-paid simple work;

4) fragmentation, which entails the growth of individualism, tearing a person out of the usual group and family environment, prompting him to greater mobility and a sharp change in lifestyle compared to his parents.

Fragmentation involves interactions between different dimensions of inequality. Many individuals exist, as it were, at the intersection of social dynamics - class, gender, ethnic, age, regional, etc. At the same time, they say that such individuals are multi-positional, which opens up scope for many ways of social identification. That is why, he claims F. Bradley, it is impossible to develop such an abstract general theory of inequality.

Another interesting concept related to the phenomenon of fragmentation is based on the concept of "hybridity". Under hybridity here we mean an intermediate state between different social loci. To understand what this is, let's look at an example that gives D. Harway. A social hybrid is a kind of cyborg, devoid of gender differences due to the fact that it is a half-mechanism-semi-organism. The concept of social hybridity can be very fruitful in the study of classes. It seems to challenge the tradition of class analysis, which consists in firmly anchoring individuals in social structures. In fact, in modern society, only a few feel their absolute identification with any particular class. Changes in the economy, rising unemployment and the expansion of the mass education system have led to a high degree of social mobility. People very often change their class localization and end their lives not belonging to the class to which they belonged from birth. All such situations can be considered as manifestations of social hybridity.

Differentiation of types of activity is manifested in the form of social differences between groups of people in terms of the nature of their work activity and functions, and, consequently, in terms of lifestyle, interests and needs.

Horizontal differentiation cannot give a complete picture of the social structuring of society. In full, the social structure of society can be described only in two planes - horizontal and vertical.

Based on the above remarks, we can say that social stratification means a form of differentiation of society that takes the form of a social hierarchy - the vertical differentiation of the population into groups and strata unequal in their social status. It is a hierarchically organized structure of social inequality.

American sociologist P. Blau developed a system of parameters that describe the position of an individual in society in the vertical and horizontal planes.

Nominal parameters: gender, race, ethnicity, religion, place of residence, area of activity, political orientation, language.

Rank parameters: education, income, wealth, prestige, power, origin, age, administrative position, intelligence.

With the help of nominal parameters, the adjacent positions of individuals are studied; on the basis of rank parameters, a hierarchical or status structure is described.

Recognition of the fact that different types of social inequality cannot be explained using a single monistic theory leads to the realization of the complexity of the real phenomenon of inequality and the establishment of a new paradigm in sociology - the postmodern paradigm.

Postmodern sociology in contrast to previous concepts, he argues that social reality is complex and pluralistic. It considers society as a set of separate social groups with their own lifestyles, their own culture and behavior, and new social movements as a real reflection of the changes taking place in these groups. In addition, it suggests that any unified theory of social inequality is more a kind of modern myth, something like a "great narrative" than a real description of a complex and multifaceted social reality that is not subject to causal explanation. Therefore, in its context, social analysis takes a more modest form, refraining from too broad generalizations and focusing on specific fragments of social reality. Conceptual constructs based on the most general categories such as "classes" or "sex" give way to concepts like "difference", "divergence" and "fragmentation". For example, representatives of poststructuralism D. Harway And D. Riley It is believed that the use of the category “women” indicates a simplified binary understanding of gender stratification and veils its real complexity. Note that the concept of fragmentation is not new. The recognition of the fact that classes have internal divisions goes back to the era of K. Marx and M. Weber. However, interest in studying the nature of fragmentation has now intensified, as it has become clear that it takes a variety of forms. There are four types of fragmentation:

1) internal fragmentation - intraclass divisions;

3) fragmentation arising from processes of social change, such as that caused by the feminization of modern labor relations, when there is a polarization between young women with education and career prospects, and older women with less high qualifications who do not have such prospects and are still engaged in low-paid simple work;

Another interesting concept related to the phenomenon of fragmentation is based on the concept of "hybridity". Under hybridity here we mean an intermediate state between different social loci. To understand what this is, let's look at an example that gives D. Harway. A social hybrid is a kind of cyborg, devoid of gender differences due to the fact that it is a half-mechanism-semi-organism. The concept of social hybridity can be very fruitful in the study of classes. It seems to challenge the tradition of class analysis, which consists in firmly anchoring individuals in social structures. In fact, in modern society, only a few feel their absolute identification with any particular class. Changes in the economy, rising unemployment and the expansion of the mass education system led to a high degree of social mobility. People very often change their class localization and end their lives not belonging to the class to which they belonged from birth. All such situations can be considered as manifestations of social hybridity.

Types of social groups.

Social differentiation

Reasons for differentiation:

1. private property

Social politics

Theory of stratification

Main stratification criteria

3. prestige

4. education

The social status of the individual and social roles.

Social status - This is the position of a person in society, occupied by him in accordance with age, sex, origin, profession, marital status. This is a certain position in the social structure of a group or society, associated with other positions through a system of rights and obligations.

The totality of all statuses occupied by one person is called status set .

One person has many statuses, as he participates in many groups and organizations. He is a man, father, husband, son, teacher, professor, doctor spider, middle-aged man, member of the editorial board, Orthodox, etc. One person can occupy two opposite statuses, but in relation to different people: for his children he is a father, and for his mother he is a son.

In the status set there must be main status. Main status name the most characteristic status for a given person, with which he is identified (identified) by other people or with which he identifies himself. The main thing is always the status that determines the style and way of life, the circle of acquaintances, the manner of behavior.

Social statuses are prescribed and acquired.

to the second - profession, education, etc. Some statuses are prestigious, others - vice versa.

Prestige - it is a public assessment social significance one status or another. This hierarchy is formed under the influence of two factors:

1. the real usefulness of those social functions that a person performs;

2. systems of values characteristic of a given society.

The social status of the individual, first of all, has an impact on her behavior.

The social role of the individual - it is a set of social functions learned and performed by a person and patterns of behavior corresponding to them. Social role - model of behavior focused on given status. It can be defined differently - as a template type of behavior aimed at fulfilling the rights and obligations assigned to a specific status.

Each person has not one, but a whole set of social roles that he plays in society.

Their collection is called role system (role set).

A social role is impossible without conditions such as:

1. expectations of group members functionally related to this status;

2. social norms that fix the range of requirements for fulfilling this role.

social mobility

A person who occupies a certain place in this structure has the ability to move from one level to another. Such a transition is called social mobility.

Types of social mobility

A high rate of vertical social mobility, other things being equal, is considered an important evidence of a democratic society.

Social elevators (channels of social mobility) are social mechanisms that allow people to move from one social stratum to another.

P. Sorokin (American sociologist of Russian origin) singled out:

1. Army (Napoleon)

2. Church (Patriarch Nikon)

3. School, education (Lomonosov)

Other channels of social mobility:

1. Family and marriage (Catherine the First)

2. Party activities (Stalin)

3. Media (Malakhov, Ksenia Sobchak)

The family is like a small group.

Family types

1. According to the related structure, there are:

extended families (multi-generational) which unite under one roof a married couple with children and one of the parents of a married couple

nuclear families - married couples with one or two children.

2. Scientists identify families full(two parents) and incomplete(where, for some reason, one of the parents or the parental generation is absent, and the children live with their grandparents).

3. Depending on the number of children, families are distinguished childless, one-child, few And large families.

4. According to the nature of the distribution of family responsibilities, according to how the issue of leadership is resolved in the family, two types of families are traditionally distinguished.

traditional, or patriarchal The family is dominated by the male. Such a family unites representatives of at least three generations under one roof. A woman is economically dependent on her husband, family roles are clearly regulated: the husband (father) is the earner and breadwinner, the wife (mother) is the housewife and educator of children.

To the characteristics partner, or egalitarian, family (family of equals) include a fair, proportional distribution of family responsibilities, the interchangeability of spouses in the decision household issues, discussion of the main problems and joint adoption of decisions important for the family, as well as the emotional richness of the relationship. Social psychologists especially note this particular feature, thereby emphasizing that only in a partner-type family can we talk about mutual respect, mutual understanding and emotional need for each other.

5. By employment in social production:

single-pit model(V traditional society father was engaged in social production, mother was engaged in housekeeping)

two-pit model

Family Functions

Under family functions is understood as its activity, which has certain social consequences.

1. reproductive function associated with the biological reproduction of members of society.

2. The new generation that replaces the old one must master social roles, gain accumulated knowledge, experience, moral and other values. This manifests itself educational function.

3. Economic function covers various aspects of family relations: housekeeping and family budgeting; the organization of family consumption and the problem of the distribution of domestic labor; support and care for the elderly and disabled.

4. The family helps a person to find peace and confidence, creates a sense of security and psychological comfort, provides emotional support and maintains overall vitality (emotional-psychological function). Scholars specifically talk about recreational function, which includes spiritual and aesthetic moments, including the organization of spending free time.

5. In addition, the family provides its members with a social status, thereby contributing to the reproduction of the social structure of society. (socio-status function).

6. The family regulates people's sexual behavior by determining who can have sex with whom and under what circumstances. (sexual function).

Youth as a socio-demographic age group

Sociologists refer to the youth of people aged 16 to 25 years. Age boundaries are determined by specific historical conditions, the socio-economic situation, and therefore can be mobile.

The transition from youth to maturity is characterized by criteria

The main features of the youth subculture

1. challenging adult values and experimenting with your own lifestyle

2. inclusion in various peer groups (informal youth groups)

3. peculiar tastes, especially in clothes, music

4. cult of power, radicalism

5. it is rather a cult of leisure than work (some representatives of the older generation believe that a significant part of today's youth does not live, but lives, does not work, but earns extra money, does not do, but pretends to do)

6. openness to innovation

Social features youth

1. mastering new professions. pattern: than newer profession, the younger the age of its representatives

2. development of new territorial production complexes. The territorial mobility of young people is 5 times higher than that of others age groups(examples: virgin lands development, BAM)

3. cultural and intellectual mobility. Young people are the most active consumer of the latest scientific knowledge.

ethnic communities. Nations and international relations

Ethnos (Greek - people) - a set of people with a common language, culture, aware of their historical unity. In the modern world there are at least two thousand different ethnic groups.

Forms of ethnic groups:

in primitive times - a tribe

in antiquity and the Middle Ages - nationality

in modern times, the most developed and stable community is the nation

A nation is an autonomous ethnic community, not limited by territorial boundaries, whose members are committed to common values and institutions. Representatives of one nation no longer have a common ancestor and a common origin. They don't have to have mutual language, religion, but the nationality uniting them was formed thanks to a common history and culture.

The nation arises in the period of the birth of capitalism. During this period, classes, an internal market and a single economic structure, their own literature and art were formed. On the basis of a common territory, language and economy, a single national character and mental warehouse is formed. There is a very strong sense of solidarity with one's nation. National patriotic and national liberation movements, ethnic strife, wars and conflicts arise as a sign that a nation has been formed and is fighting for its sovereignty.

Nation signs:

1. common territory;

2. common language;

3. community of economic life;

4. common features of the mental warehouse;

5. national professional culture;

6. national identity. Awareness by the individual of himself as an integral part of the nation, participation in the common historical fate and culture of the nation, feelings for its past, present and future, orientation towards the goals and values of national development.

How to determine the nationality of a person? national identity.

Nationality is a private (personal) matter of the citizens themselves. Constitution of the Russian Federation, art. 25, paragraph 1: “Everyone has the right to determine and indicate their nationality. No one can be forced to determine and indicate their nationality"

Nationalism and chauvinism

Nationalism is an ideology, the essence of which is the preaching of the peculiarities and / or exclusivity of one's people, the priority of national values, etc.

The extreme form of nationalism is chauvinism, preaching the exclusivity of one's own nation, opposing the interests of one's own nation to the interests of other nations, inciting national enmity and hatred.

Interethnic relations

Interethnic relations have always been distinguished by their contradictory nature - the gravitation towards cooperation and periodic conflicts.

Causes of interethnic conflicts:

1. territorial disputes;

2. historical tensions between peoples;

3. the policy of discrimination pursued by the dominant nation;

4. attempts by national political elites to use national feelings for their own popularity;

5. the desire of peoples to create their own statehood (SEPARATISM)

When resolving these conflicts, it is necessary to observe the humanistic principles of policy in the field of national relations:

1. rejection of violence and coercion;

2. search for consent based on the consensus of all participants;

3. recognition of human rights and freedoms as the most important value;

4. readiness for a peaceful settlement of disputed problems.

Trends in the development of nations

The nature of national relations is determined by two interrelated trends:

differentiation

integration

Each nation strives for self-development, for the preservation of national identity, language and culture. These aspirations are realized in the process of their differentiation, which can take the form of a struggle for national self-determination and the creation of an independent national state.

On the other hand, the self-development of nations under conditions modern world it is impossible without their close interaction, cooperation, exchange of cultural values, overcoming alienation, maintaining mutually beneficial contacts. The trend towards integration is intensifying due to the need to solve global problems facing humanity, with the success of the scientific and technological revolution. It must be borne in mind that these trends are interrelated: diversity national cultures does not lead to their isolation, and the rapprochement of nations does not mean the disappearance of differences between them.

National politics

National policy - a set of measures of all branches authorities in the field of national relations.

National policy differs in goals, direction, based on the priorities of the state policy.

Goals, direction of the inhumane totalitarian policy

Aims and content of democratic national policy

1. upholding the so-called ethnic "purity" 2. inciting racial hatred 3. violence in the interests of domination of one's state. These goals are realized by laws, organization and encouragement of appropriate group behavior. Fascism is the most misanthropic expression of this anti-democratic policy.

1. legislative consolidation of a respectful attitude towards people of all nationalities, ethnic groups to their self-consciousness, identity, 2. creation of the most favorable conditions for the free development of all peoples, 3. harmonization of national interests, 4. warning and humane resolution ethnic conflicts. State, democratic parties help ensure that these goals are shared by the population of the country.

The main principles of the state national policy in Russia are as follows:

1. equality of rights and freedoms of a person and a citizen, regardless of his race, nationality, language, attitude to religion, membership in social groups and public associations;

2. prohibition of any form of restriction of the rights of a citizen on the grounds of social, racial, national, linguistic or religious affiliation;

3. preservation of the historical integrity of the country, equality of all subjects of the federation, guarantee of the rights of indigenous peoples;

4. everyone's right citizen determine and indicate their nationality;

5. promoting the development of national cultures and languages of the peoples of the Russian Federation;

6. timely and peaceful resolution of contradictions and conflicts;

7. prohibition of activities aimed at undermining the security of the state, inciting social, racial, national and religious discord, hatred or enmity;

8. protecting the rights and interests of Russian citizens abroad, supporting compatriots living in foreign countries in the preservation and development of their native language, culture and national traditions, in strengthening their ties with their homeland

The social structure of Russian society

Causes of conflicts

1. the possession by one of the parties of tangible and intangible (power, information) values, while the other side is either completely deprived of them or does not have enough of them. At the same time, it is not excluded that the predominance may be imaginary.

2. incompatibility of worldview attitudes and evaluative positions of various social groups (classes, estates, strata) of society;

3. misunderstanding of each other by people; differences in views and the imposition of the opinion of one of the parties, the psychological incompatibility of people

4. increased irritability, an overestimated level of claims (in interpersonal conflicts)

Types of conflicts

1. Depending on the spheres of human activity in which conflicts occur, they are divided into

Family

Labor

Political

ethnic

2. In terms of scale and volume, they include

Interpersonal conflicts when interests collide individual people;

Conflicts between small and large social groups:

International conflicts arising between individual states and their coalitions.

3. By the nature of development:

Deliberate

Spontaneous.

Stages of conflict

Pre-conflict stage This is the period during which contradictions accumulate.

Direct conflict stage is a set of specific actions. It is characterized by a clash of opposing sides.

On post-conflict stage measures are being taken to finally eliminate the contradictions

Types of social groups.

A) in terms of numbers - large (nations, estates) and small (family, school class)

B) according to the method of organizing and regulating behavior - formal (production team) and informal (bikers, emo)

Reasons for grouping people together:

1. groups help achieve common goals

2. groups allow you to satisfy psychological and other problems

3. group membership contributes to the formation of a positive "I-concept"

Social differentiation is the division of society into groups occupying different social status and differing in scope and nature of rights, privileges and duties, prestige and influence.

Types of differentiation, their manifestations

It should be noted that with the development of society, its social structure becomes more complicated. Also, connections and relationships between people are becoming deeper and more complex.

Reasons for differentiation:

1. private property

2. the complexity of modern society, the need for a division of labor

3. various abilities, psychological characteristics of people

Social politics

Social policy is a set of measures aimed at meeting the material and spiritual needs of a person, as well as ensuring the social protection of citizens in need of special care from the state.

Social policy is designed to mitigate social inequality.

Traditional destinations social policy is:

1. organization of pensions and social insurance, medical care;

2. material and household services for disabled and other categories of citizens in need of social protection (students, temporarily unemployed, orphans, etc.);

3. promoting the employment of citizens.

Theory of stratification

Social differentiation is the division of society into groups occupying different social positions and differing in the scope and nature of rights, privileges and duties, prestige and influence. Types of differentiation Economic: - Level of income; - Standard of living; - Poor, rich, middle strata Political: - Governing and ruled; - Political leaders and mass Professional: - Professions; - Type of activity and occupation; - Prestigious and non-prestigious professions, occupations

Social groups are relatively stable aggregates of people who have their own interests, values and norms of behavior that develop within the framework of a historically defined society. Social groups Large ____________________________ - Estates - Classes - Social strata - Ethnic communities - Professional groups - Other. Small (direct contact of its members) __________________________ - Family - Classroom- Dr.

Estates are large groups of people that differ in rights and obligations enshrined in custom or law and inherited. Estates of ancient societies Estates of medieval society Higher or noble Lower or ignoble Clergy Nobility (knights or horsemen) Third estate (citizens) Modern social differentiation Class theory Stratification theory

Signs of classes according to V. I. Lenin (“The Great Initiative”) Classes are called large groups of people that differ: By place in the system social production In relation to the means of production According to the role in public organization labor According to the methods of obtaining and the size of the disposable social wealth The main feature

Main classes in socio-economic formations Primitive communal formation Slave-owning formation Feudal formation Capitalist formation Communist formation socialism communism Society without classes Slave owners and slaves Feudal lords and dependent peasants Bourgeoisie (capitalists) and proletariat Working class and peasantry Society without classes Exploiters and exploited (another point of view)

The theory of the emergence of classes, biological, distributive, organizational and technical violence, Marxist-Leninist Classes exist due to the age-old biological or psychological inequality of people, biologically inferior inevitably fall into submission to the strong, elected Classes exist due to various sources and amounts of income received (rent, profit, salary) Classes exist due to the division of people into "organizers" and "performers!", i.e., due to their different roles in the social organization of labor Division of society into classes occurred as a result of political, military violence. Class division is the result of the emergence (in various ways) of private property, which leads to property inequality.

Strata - social strata that differ: By level and sources of income; By level of education; by profession; According to living conditions; By involvement in power structures; In relation to property; By social prestige; By self-assessment of one's position in society; By quality of life. At the core: social distribution of the results of labor (i.e., social benefits). Theory of stratification

Upper upper class - chief executives of national corporations, co-owners of prestigious firms, senior officials, federal judges, archbishops, stockbrokers, medical luminaries, large architects Upper class - general manager of a medium firm, mechanical engineer, newspaper publisher, doctor with private practice, Practicing Lawyer, College Teacher

Upper middle class - bank teller, community college teacher, middle manager, teacher high school Middle middle class - bank clerk, dentist, teacher elementary school, factory shift supervisor, insurance company clerk, supermarket manager, skilled carpenter Lower middle class – auto mechanic, hairdresser, bartender, grocer, skilled worker physical labor, hotel clerk, postal worker, police officer, truck driver

What professions, positions and occupations are the most profitable? This question is the specialists of the All-Russian Center for the Study public opinion asked 1600 residents of Russia (the results are given as a percentage of the total number of respondents). Rating of professions in Russia according to the results of public opinion in 2000

Banker - 39.90 Criminal "authority" - 28.39 Pop star - 22.50 Deputy - 21.70 Minister - 15.39 Lawyer - 14.39 Governor - 13.50 Entrepreneur - 13, 39 Politician - 11.00 Prostitute - 9, 19 Fashion model - 8.00 Image maker, specialist according to elections - 3.79 Doctor - 3.09 Rating of professions in Russia according to the results of public opinion in 2000 Priest - 2.29 Artist - 2.09 Journalist - 1.79 Farmer - 1.39 Policeman - 1.29 Special services officer - 1.20 Beggar - 1.10 Teacher - 0.89 Scientist - 0.89 Writer - 0.60 Athlete - 0.50 Skilled worker - 0.50 Army officer - 0.10

Middle class (various approaches to definition) Western Europe: belonging is determined by the presence of savings USA: belonging is determined by the presence of debts, i.e. received loans High level consumption (certain products, services, cars, etc.) People who have already abandoned their hopes for the state, for someone to help them. They rely on their own strengths, capabilities and resources. They have a fundamentally different attitude to life, work and family. A good financial and economic situation, measured not only by income, but also by property and savings. High educational level, professional status position in the labor market. Self-Identification (People identify themselves as middle class because they feel that way)

Features of the middle class in Russia The middle class is extremely diverse: a small businessman, a bank clerk, a professor working on an international grant, a manager, etc. One can speak of the middle classes. The backbone of the middle class is made up of officials and managers - 60% (in the West - entrepreneurs). The share of small entrepreneurs in the Russian middle class is only 3%. Only where, in the composition of the population, the averages have a preponderance over both extremes or over one of them, can the state system count on stability .... Aristotle States without a middle class are condemned to eternal nonentities. V.G. Belinsky

Feudal lords - large landowners. In Russia they are called landlords. Social categories(general concepts) feudal lords peasants Spiritual (clergy class) Secular (noble class) As a class of feudal society (dependent or serfs) As a professional group (workers on the land, landowners)

The bourgeoisie is the class of owners of the means of production who use wage labor. Social categories (general concepts) Bourgeoisie by type of activity Industrial ____________ These are the owners of manufactories, factories, plants, and other enterprises Trading ____________ This is the merchant class Financial __________ These are the owners of banks and securities Rural _______________ These are the owners of the land. In Russia they are called kulaks (kurkuly)

The proletariat (from the Greek "proles" - deprived of everything) - hired workers. Social categories (general concepts) social term economic

Differences between the proletariat and the working class Signs of classes Proletariat Working class Place in the system of social production Subordinate (exploited class) Dominant (class friendly to the peasantry) Attitude towards the means of production Deprived of the means of production under capitalism Owns the means of production under socialism Role in the social organization of labor Performer, direct producer Organizer, performer, producer Methods of obtaining and size of disposable social wealth According to the cost of labor power. A small part of the national income By work. Corresponding part of the national income

The intelligentsia is a social stratum, a stratum of people of intellectual labor. Distinctive features of intellectuals Having an education Lack of property The main condition for existence is mental labor intelligentsia Humanitarian Scientific Engineering and technical Creative Military

Outcasts - a social stratum of people who have fallen out of their traditional social environment (temporarily or permanently). Marginalization Negative ___________________________ PhD cleans snow; a physicist sells mayonnaise; other cases Positive ______________________ Candidate of Science – manager; a physicist who graduated from courses in floriculture; other cases

Lumpens (paupers) - people without certain place residence, without a permanent income, without a permanent occupation. Social mobility is the movement of people from one social group to another. Social groups (social strata) Declassed elements Military personnel, students, schoolchildren, students, pensioners, disabled people, women, youth, single mothers, etc. Criminals, drug addicts, alcoholics, prostitutes, homeless people, etc.

Social mobility Horizontal _________________________ This is a transition to a group of the same level _____________________________ Transition from one place of work to another, remarriage, other cases Vertical _________________________ This is a transition from one step of the social hierarchy (ladder) to another Rise ________________ From a worker to a factory owner, other cases Descent _________________ From a factory owner to a hired manager, other cases The higher the social mobility, the more open society is.

Social elevators are social mechanisms that move people from one social stratum to another. Social elevators, according to P. Sorokin (American sociologist of Russian origin) Army (G.K. Zhukov, Napoleon, J. Washington, O. Cromwell) Church (Patriarch Nikon, Pope Gregory VII) School (education) - M.V. Lomonosov, M. Luther Media (A. Kashpirovsky, A. Razin) Party or social activity(A. Hitler, I.V. Stalin) Marriage with representatives of the upper class (P. Kovaleva-Zhemchugova, Catherine II) New channels of social mobility (additional social lifts)

Social structure - internal organization society, a set of interconnected and interacting human communities and relations between them. Social relations - diverse connections between social groups, classes, nations, as well as within them, in the process of economic, social, political, cultural life and activity. The nomenklatura is a privileged, dominant and ruling, exploiting class that exercises dictatorship in hierarchical societies and owns collective property. Bureaucracy is special social group officials exercising state power.

Elite - the highest, privileged layer (layers) of the social structure of society, carrying out state, socio-economic and cultural policy. Elite Types of elites Political - exercises power and organizes state administration Economic - influences power with material capabilities, participates in decision-making Intellectual - develops science and culture, has an ideological and moral influence on power

Social differentiation is an intra-group process that determines the position and status of members of a given community. The social differentiation of society is an attribute inherent in all types of societies. Already in primitive cultures, where there were still no differences between people in terms of wealth, there were differences due to the personal qualities of individuals - physical strength, experience, gender. A person could occupy a higher position due to successful hunting and fruit gathering. Individual differences continue to play an important role in modern societies Oh.

According to functionalist theory, in any society, some activities are considered more important than others. This leads to differentiation of both individuals and professional groups. Occupation of different types of activity for society underlies existing inequalities and, consequently, causes unequal access to such social benefits as money, power, prestige.

Systems of social differentiation differ in the degree of their stability. In relatively stable societies, social differentiation is more or less clearly defined, transparent, and reflects the well-known algorithm of its functioning. In a changing society, social differentiation is diffuse, difficult to predict, the algorithms for its functioning are hidden or not defined.

The behavior of the individual is largely determined by the factor of social inequality, which in society is ranked, stratified according to different systems, grounds or indicators:

social background;

Ethnic background;

Level of education;

Positions;

professional affiliation;

income and wealth;

Lifestyle.

Question 15. Social inequality and social justice. (Interesting).

social stratification is always associated with social inequality, i.e. unequal access to such social benefits as money, power, prestige, education, etc. Social inequality finds its expression in the inequality of living conditions, in the inequality of opportunities in achieving desired goals and in the inequality of results. In various societies, certain aspects of inequality were regarded as unfair, and therefore requiring elimination or mitigation.

The concept of justice arises in the process of social interaction, the exchange of activities and their results. In the very general view the concept of justice is associated with an understanding of the measure, scale, criteria for correlating the actions of some people with the actions of others. Justice presupposes retribution: crime must be punished, good deeds must be rewarded, honors must be according to merit, rights correspond to duties.

The concept of justice is close to the concept of equality, since inequality or equality of social groups can be regarded as fair and as unfair. And yet, unlike the concept of justice, the concept of equality focuses on the coincidence, sameness, similarity, interchangeability of goals, values, positions, prestige, and the availability of benefits of various social groups. The specific meaning of the concepts of justice and equality is always changeable and depends on historical circumstances.

In closed societies, where social control is aimed at preserving the existing social order where a person is attached to his social stratum and does not have the opportunity to advance to other strata, social inequality persists and is constantly reproduced. The ruling social groups of such societies regarded social inequality as the embodiment of a just social order, and therefore any deviation from the established social order should be resolutely suppressed.

However, those who did not agree with this principle of the world order associated the idea of social justice with the destruction of social barriers and the establishment of complete social equality. Complete equality was understood as an equalizing equality, embodied in the principle of "one and the same for everyone." The stronger social inequality, the more egalitarian moods are manifested among its opponents, especially in the sphere of distribution of goods. Attempts to realize full equality in practice have always led to new system social inequality.

In open societies, social inequality persists, especially at the level of income. A person from a wealthy family has the opportunity to get an education in prestigious educational institutions and move up the social ladder faster than a person from the lower classes. However, existing in open society the mechanism of social mobility contributes to the mitigation of social inequality, although it does not eliminate it. Social justice is understood as an opportunity to take a prestigious place in the social hierarchy in accordance with personal merits, abilities, diligence, talents, knowledge, and education.

The principle of social justice is interpreted as the principle of "fair inequality", which is expressed in the requirements of "equal pay for equal work" or "freedom to the strong - protection to the weak". It is from the point of view of social justice that the question is decided in what people are equal and in what they are not. Acting as a measure of the distribution of social benefits, justice serves as the basis for social protection the interests of children, the elderly, the disabled and other social groups who experience difficulties in raising their social status.

In an open society, the demand for equality, understood as the complete equalization of each person with all others in any of the parameters of life, threatens the very existence of a person who can never be identical to everyone else. The motto of an open society is not "equal to all!", but "everyone has the right to achieve a higher status, to have their merits and merits recognized by those around them!". In an open society, social equality means the creation of such conditions in society that would contribute to the implementation of the principle equal opportunities for every person, every social group. Then this principle is supported by the requirement of legal equality, i.e. equality of all citizens before the law, as well as the requirement of moral equality, i.e. equality of all before moral standards.

Is it possible to overcome social inequality? The answer to this question is related to the understanding of the reasons for the stratification of society. K. Marx believed that the reason for the division of society into classes is private property, which acts as a source of exploitation by the possessing classes of the have-nots. Therefore, it is true that the destruction of private property will lead to the elimination of social inequality. If the Marxist program of the abolition of private property is implemented, social stratification itself must go into oblivion along with social inequality. All people will occupy exactly the same position, and society itself will become one-dimensional, "flat". Relations between social groups in such a society would have to be built on the principle of coordination rather than subordination.

Supporters of the universality of stratification are convinced that existing system inequality stimulates people's efforts to achieve higher status. In addition, giving preference to certain groups, society gains confidence that necessary work will be done well. At the same time, it is important to create mechanisms social control(norms, laws, rules) regulating social inequality and not allowing such social tension to arise, which will have destructive consequences for society. In this case, justice acts as a means of mitigating social inequality, harmonizing the interests of social groups, regulating relations between groups and members within them. Thus, social justice, on the one hand, is a factor in the stabilization of the social system, and on the other hand, it is a force that unites people in the fight against inequality.

Question 16. general characteristics social institutions. And question 17. Classification of social institutions. And question 18. Economic institutions and economic relations. And question 19. The family as a social institution, its functions.

A social institution is an organized system of connections and social norms that combines significant social values and procedures that meet the basic needs of society.

The following complexes of institutions in society can be distinguished: 1. economic institutions that perform the functions of production and distribution of goods and services; 2. political institutions that regulate the functions of power and access to it; 3. institutions of kinship related to the family, marriage and the upbringing of children; 4. cultural institutions associated with religion, education, science, etc.

Institutionalization is the process by which social practices become sufficiently regular and long-lasting.

The activity of the institute is determined by:

· a set of specific social norms and regulations governing the relevant types of behavior;

· its integration into the socio-political, ideological and value structure of society, which makes it possible to legitimize the formal legal basis of the social institution;

availability of material resources and conditions that ensure the performance of functions.

Explicit Functions of Social Institutions

Fixation and reproduction function public relations. Each institution has a system of rules and norms of behavior that fixes, standardizes the behavior of its members and makes this behavior predictable.

The regulatory function is that the functioning of social institutions ensures the regulation of relationships between members of society by developing patterns of behavior.

integrative function. This function includes the processes of cohesion, interdependence and mutual responsibility of members of social groups, occurring under the influence of institutionalized norms, rules, sanctions and systems of roles.

broadcasting function. Society could not develop if it were not possible to transfer social experience.

communicative function. Information produced in an institution should be disseminated both within the institution for the purpose of managing and monitoring compliance with regulations, and in interactions between institutions.

latent functions. Along with the direct results of the actions of social institutions, there are other results that are outside the immediate goals of a person, not planned in advance. These results may have great importance for society. Thus, the church seeks to consolidate its influence to the greatest extent through ideology, the introduction of faith, and often achieves success in this. However, regardless of the goals of the church, there are people who leave for the sake of religion. production activities. Fanatics begin to persecute non-believers, and there may be the possibility of major social conflicts on religious grounds. The family strives to socialize the child to accepted norms family life, however, it sometimes happens that family education leads to a conflict between an individual and a cultural group and serves to protect the interests of certain social strata.

You can not read (The existence of latent functions of the institute is most convexly shown by T. Veblen, who wrote that it would be naive to say that people eat black caviar because they want to satisfy their hunger, and buy a luxurious Cadillac because they want to get a good car. It is obvious that these things are not acquired for the sake of satisfying obvious urgent needs. T. Veblen concludes from this that the production of consumer goods performs a hidden, latent function - it satisfies the needs of people in raising one's own prestige.This understanding of the institution's actions as the production of consumer goods radically changes the opinion about its activities, tasks and conditions of functioning.

Thus, it is obvious that only by studying the latent functions of institutions can we determine the true picture social life. For example, very often sociologists are faced with a phenomenon that is incomprehensible at first glance, when an institution continues to successfully exist, even if it not only does not fulfill its functions, but also interferes with their implementation. Such an institution obviously has hidden functions by which it satisfies the needs of certain social groups. A similar phenomenon can be observed especially often among political institutions, in which latent functions are developed to the greatest extent.

Latent functions, therefore, are the subject that should primarily interest the student of social structures. The difficulty in recognizing them is compensated by the creation of a reliable picture of social connections and features of social objects, as well as the ability to control their development and to manage the social processes taking place in them.)

Economic institutions. The economy as a subsystem of society is itself a social institution, but in this important area public life can also be called a number of social institutions through which the economic life of society is organized: the market, property, money, entrepreneurship, labor, the stock exchange, etc. A feature of the economic institutions of society is their huge impact on all spheres of human life. The economy as a social institution is not only responsible for the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods and services necessary for the life of people, it also affects social relations, the activity of social groups and the social stratification of society. In fact, the position of various social groups in society is determined by the system of economic relations, although other social institutions also play a role in the configuration of the social structure of society.

a family is a small social group, which is characterized by certain intra-group processes and phenomena.

The main functions of the family:

1.Reproductive
2. Household
3. Economic
4. Spiritual
5. Communicative
6. Leisure (recreational)

(Even by E. Durkheim, it was statistically shown that single, widowed or divorced people are more likely to commit suicide than married people, and married but not having children more often than having children. The percentage of suicides is lower, the more united the family is. About 30% of intentional murders are murders by some members of the family of its other members.)

Social differentiation of society. Social differentiation of modern societies Differentiation of social life

Popular