In theory and practice political activity. IV

In political science, the transition from one type of political system to another is denoted by the terms “political development” or “political modernization.” Political modernization is an increase in the ability of the political system to adapt to new patterns of social goals and create new types of institutions that ensure the development of the social system. Modernization is due to objective (socio-economic and cultural) and subjective (the ability of the political leadership to effectively change the political system) factors. Political modernization is a part of social modernization, when transformations occur in all major areas of the social system: economy, social sphere, culture, education etc. The choice of a modernization option begins in the political sphere - with the manifestation of the political will to change. Consistently carried out political modernization serves as a factor, a guarantor of ensuring the consistency of modernization in other areas public life.The goals of modernization are aimed at achieving such social values ​​as economic growth, equality, democracy, stability, welfare, justice, order.

The following goals of political modernization are distinguished:

- the creation of new political institutions to address the ever-expanding range of social and economic problems;

– change in the political orientations of the elite and leaders to an open struggle;

- the formation of a rational bureaucracy.

The main directions of modernization in modern world:

– processes of industrialization and informatization of society;

- the formation of an ecological society, the introduction of environmentally friendly technologies; - the democratization of society, the expansion of public participation in the management of public affairs, the responsibility of the authorities to society; - the focus social sphere in the direction of improving the well-being of the bulk of the population, overcoming the social gap between members of society; - ensuring the availability of education and its high quality, which guarantees the possibility of vigorous activity and success in a new, changing system social relations;

- expansion of the sphere of human freedom, the growth of the possibility of choice and independence from the pressure of traditions, environment, place of residence.

There are two historical types of modernization. The first type, the so-called original modernization, is typical for the United States and Western European countries, which made the transition to a rational social internal development. The second type - secondary modernization - was typical for countries that lagged behind in their development and tried to catch up with advanced ones at an accelerated pace through the use of experience developed countries. This group includes developing countries liberated from colonial dependence (countries South America, South-East Asia),

a 3 Currently, there are many international organizations in the world that resolve issues in all areas of the sphere of human life; both economic and political. The most acute problems today are war and peace, disarmament and resolution of military conflicts. The concern of states for their security led to the creation of military-political organizations. One of which was the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). NATO was created on April 4, 1949. NATO countries decided to join their efforts for collective defense, peace and security.

The main goal of NATO is to ensure the freedom and security of all members by political and military means in accordance with the principles of the UN. The NATO organization is called upon to ensure lasting peace in Europe and maintain a strategic balance throughout Europe. NATO members undertake to resolve all international disputes by peaceful means so as not to jeopardize international security. According to the NATO structure, an armed attack on one of the NATO members is considered an attack on all countries of the North Atlantic Treaty. These are the main provisions of the NATO Charter. Like any international organization NATO has its own structure.

The governing bodies of the bloc are the North Atlantic Council, the Defense Planning Committee, the Nuclear Planning Group, other committees, and the Secretary General. NATO's military structure consists of military committees, a standing military committee and an international military headquarters. NATO headquarters is located in Brussels. Currently, NATO includes 16 states: the USA, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Portugal, Luxembourg, Canada, Italy, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, Greece, Turkey, Spain, Germany. But Iceland does not have its own military forces and is not part of the military structure of NATO, it has only an observer status in the Defense Planning Committee. France in 1966 also withdrew from the NATO military structure.

21. Political activity as the basis of the political life of society. The political process consists of actions. political action defined as intervention individual person or groups in relation to the power of this system in order to adapt it to their interests, ideals and values. The activities of social groups or individuals are associated with the desire to improve or change the socio-economic and political order. Political actions orient the political system towards achieving certain goals that express the interests of various groups. These interests are clothed in a theoretical, ideological form. From what ideology the participants in the political process adhere to, whether their activities are aimed at revolutionary changes in society or at its reform. Political action is always performed "here" and "now", that is, in a specific situation. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the objective state of affairs, specific conditions, before starting to act. It is necessary to identify the specifics of each situation in order to choose the right methods and means of political action. The toolkit with which the situation is assessed is also important. It is reasonable to change our schemes and dogmas if political reality does not fit into them, because it is always richer than any schemes. Persons acting in politics must have a solid store of knowledge and be competent. In addition, they must creatively apply their knowledge in a given situation. Theory in politics makes sense when it can give an adequate answer to a specific problem. In any political system, there are certain norms, rules of the game that participants in the political process are required to comply with. As a rule, these norms are violated by those who want to change the political system through violence. However, in the case of gaining power, they establish their own norms of action, their own rules of the game. Yes, different positive political action to do something to achieve a particular goal, and negative , consisting in "stop doing something". The position of abstinence is not neutral, as it always has certain consequences. Political action can be described as rational and irrational . Rational action means that his agent has a clear understanding of the goals, knows methods adequate to these goals, is able to effectively apply them by setting a system of priorities, and is also able to change the strategy if it does not lead to the desired results. As for irrational political action, as a rule, it ends in failure due to the inability of politicians to link goals and means, a blind attitude to reality, which they consider in accordance with their dogmas and schemes. This is the soil of political illusions, which often lead to sad consequences for society. Political action can be seen as inertial and creative . Inertial actions reproduce accepted norms behavior, the existing political system, preserve it. Creative actions bring changes, new moments, dynamics into politics. Political action can be spontaneous or organized . As a rule, the actions of the elites are more organized, which gives them the opportunity to maintain their dominance, develop strategies and tactics, and implement their plans. However, in any political action there may be a share of spontaneity, randomness, inconsistency. Types of political action depend on the type of social transformations, on the attitude of political forces to reality. Revolution, rebellion, uprising, counter-revolution, peasant war have the maximum radius of action. Revolution represents the overthrow of the dominant groups, the transformation of society as a whole. counterrevolution is a political movement led by groups removed from power, their representatives, those who broke with the revolution. Riot- the result of the indignation of the masses by the actions of local authorities, which develops into disorder, pogroms. reforms lead to social change without undermining the foundations of the existing order and the power of the ruling class. Political upheavals lead to changes in the sphere of power, primarily personal, through the use of physical violence. Rallies, demonstrations, strikes, meetings, picketing, processions, etc. are examples of specific political actions. Elections and election campaigns, referendums, official visits of state and party delegations to other countries, diplomatic negotiations are special types of political actions.

22. In political science, the term "political participation" used to denote forms of political behavior of citizens. Political participation is considered as the involvement of members of a given community on an individual, class-group, national-ethnic, religious or other basis in the process of political and power relations. The participation of people in politics is one of the means of expressing and achieving their interests. Political participation makes it possible to reveal the real role of a citizen, individual strata, groups, classes, both at the local level and in the political system of society. If citizens take an active part in the formation of the elite, in determining the main goals of the policy, monitoring its implementation, then such a political system can be considered based on participation. Political participation is expressed in two main forms: straight(immediate) and indirect(representative). Direct participation takes place within the framework of small political communities, where the masses at meetings make decisions by majority vote. It is characteristic of local government and self-government, carried out by citizens through local councils deputies, bodies of territorial public self-government, local referendums, meetings and other forms of direct participation in state and public affairs. At indirect participation the masses elect their representatives to exercise political power. How larger society the less opportunity for self-management. Indirect participation gives more opportunities to distort the will of the masses, since elected representatives, deputies can pursue their own interests that do not coincide with the interests of those they represent. The masses may lose control over their representatives, and the degree of their political participation is reduced. One of the most The developed schemes of political participation include the following elements:

Reaction (positive or negative) to impulses emanating from the political system, not related to the need to participate in any action; - participation in delegation of powers (elections). This is electoral behavior; - participation in the activities of political and other organizations; - performance of political functions within the framework of state and other political institutions (including in parties, etc.). This function is implemented by professional politicians, officials, deputies, leaders and party functionaries; - direct actions (participation in rallies, demonstrations, etc.).

The types of participation are highly unequal. Some of them occupy a modest place in political life, others are highly developed, which makes it possible to judge the political culture of a particular society. Political participation can be directed against the actions and decisions of the authorities, expressing protest, indignation, rejection of this political line. political protest- this is a type of negative reaction of an individual (group) to the political situation that has developed in society or a specific action of individual state bodies and political opponents. Forms of political protest include actions such as political and civil disobedience, petitions, boycotts, property damage, sabotage, assassinations, kidnappings, terror, partisan actions, revolutions, wars. The level of political participation is influenced by such social factors like education, socioeconomic status, age, gender, place of residence, profession, access to political information, socio-economic situation.

Institute for the Acceptance of Political and management decisions at various levels in public authorities is a key node in the management critical areas public life. Moreover, politics in the proper sense of the word cannot be imagined without mechanisms for the preparation, adoption and implementation of decisions. Politics itself is, to varying degrees, the result of mechanisms and decision-making processes.

Essence and main components of a political decision

The nature and content of the political and administrative decisions taken by the authorities indicate the goals, mechanisms and means of implementation government controlled. With the help of the institution of making and implementing decisions from everyday to vital for a given society, the interaction of the governed and the managers, the reproduction of the political system itself, as well as control over various types resources at the disposal of society and the state. Political decisions play an indispensable role as a tool for preventing or resolving various kinds of internal and external conflicts.

A political decision is a collective or individual process of defining the tasks of public authorities. It can be argued that political activity of any level and any scale begins with a decision. And because how thoughtful, reasonable and consistent with the real state of things this decision is, depends on the success or failure, as well as the reputation and authority of a political figure, political institutions and organizations, the political regime itself.

The whole variety of decisions, depending on their significance and status, can be divided into strategic ones, taken by the country's top political leadership, various kinds of administrative and management bodies of the central and regional levels, bodies local government, as well as higher and lower bodies of political parties and public organizations and others. Decisions can be divided into political and administrative, vital for the whole society, concerning certain categories of the population, any particular regions, certain spheres of public life, etc.

The decisive role in the development and adoption of long-term and strategic decisions that determine the main directions and priorities of the country's socio-economic and political development belongs to the country's top political leadership, the highest state authorities represented by the legislative assembly, the head of state and his apparatus, the government and the judiciary. It's about about the political management of the affairs of the whole society. In this context, the state is called upon to ensure the functioning and development of the main areas of people's lives, to create and maintain the infrastructure on which all the life of society, including the economic system, is based.

These are decisions of national importance, binding on all organs and links of the state apparatus and citizens without exception. The most important function of the state in this context is to ensure the integrity and unity of institutions and bodies that perform various management functions.

Here, the political priorities facing the state are of decisive importance. Under the political priorities are meant especially highlighted installations and guidelines, which are of paramount importance and which are put at the forefront in the development of the main directions of the socio-economic, technological and cultural development of the country. It is on the basis of them that the strategic interests of the state in the international arena are determined. Decisions made in various state-administrative structures must fully comply with the general strategic line of the state.

A political decision is one of essential tools management of society, and in this regard, it should meet the interests of the whole society and become a real embodiment of key principle politics as the art of the possible. Among the many political decisions made in the state, one can single out various kinds of laws, resolutions, decrees, orders of executive bodies, the results of popular votes in parliamentary, presidential and other elections, etc.

Political activity is a form of social being of politics. Politics in the proper sense of the word is a field of activity associated with the realization of the needs and interests of various groups of people, the core of which is the conquest, retention and use of state power.

Each sphere of the life of society: economic, social, spiritual, etc., is characterized by a set of forms and types of activity inherent in it and public relations. A special place is occupied by political activity, which is the main content of politics, political life. To define the content of political activity means to give an essential definition of politics. And, apparently, this should begin with the definition of the concept of "activity". In the scientific literature, activity in the broad sense of the word is understood as a specific form of active attitude to the surrounding world, the content of which is its expedient change and transformation in the interests of people. The activity of a person or a group of people appears as an ordered process consisting of a number of interrelated elements: object and subject, purpose of activity, means of activity, result of activity. The above provisions can be fully attributed to politics, which is one of the most common types of human activity.

Political activity, therefore, can be defined as the systematic conscious intervention of individuals and groups of people in the system of political relations in order to adapt it to their interests. In turn, political activity appears as a continuous series of specific political actions, which can be called certain actions, actions of intention or spontaneously undertaken by an individual or a group of people in order to cause certain political results, consequences.

The essence of political activity is revealed when characterizing its structural elements:

The subjects of political activity are direct participants in political actions - social groups and their organizations;

The objects of political activity are the existing social and political structure, which the subjects of political activity seek to change and transform. The political structure is the unity of the social class structure of society, the totality of social relations and the constitutional mechanism of politics, that is, the political system;

The purpose of political activity in the broad sense of the word is either to strengthen existing type political relations, or in a partial transformation, or in their destruction and the creation of a different socio-political system. The discrepancy between the goals of various social actors gives rise to the sharpness of their political confrontation. Determining the goals of political activity is a complex scientific task and, at the same time, an art. Absolutely and relatively unrealizable goals are called political utopias. However, in politics, the possible is often achieved only because its participants strived for the impossible behind it. The French poet and publicist Lamartine called utopias "prematurely expressed truths."

The motive of political activity is what encourages people to be active, what they begin to act for (from the French motif - I move). Of paramount importance among the motives belongs to the interests of society as a whole: ensuring security, public order. Then the class interests follow, and those of those social groups close the scale of interests, the interests of small social groups and individual individuals. For political action to take place, it is essential to realize social subject their needs and interests. Theoretically expressed awareness of interests is called ideology.

Means of political action in dictionaries are defined as techniques, methods, objects, devices used to achieve goals. As for the methods, in politics as means (methods) one can consider any actions, actions performed individually or collectively and aimed at maintaining or changing the existing political reality. It is impossible to give a fairly complete list of means in politics, but some of them are: rallies, demonstrations, manifestations, elections, referendums, political speeches, manifestos, meetings, negotiations, consultations, decrees, reforms, uprisings, negotiations, putsches, revolutions, counter-revolutions, terror, war.

The results of political action are expressed in those changes in the socio-political structure that were the result of the actions taken, both on a general and local scale. Specifically, they can be expressed depending on the type of existing political actions - revolution, reform or coup - their results can be varying degrees of change in the system of organization of power: replacement of the subject of power (revolution); changes in the strength of power (reform); increase in the amount of power, personal changes in power (coup).

Depending on the changes that political actions cause, three main types of actions can be distinguished:

Revolutions, uprisings, counter-revolutions as political actions differ: in the sphere of relations of domination and subordination - by the change of the ruling social class; in the sphere of power - the change of the ruling group by means of violence against the former groups;

Reform and counter-reform as political actions do not lead to the destruction of the foundations of the existing power of the ruling groups, but fix only concessions on their part, they are carried out "from above" using legal means;

Political coups - a state or "palace" coup, putsch, conspiracy as political actions lead to change only within the existing government, primarily to personal changes in the center that makes political decisions.

All three of these types of political actions are important for the organization of political life, but even more significant are the actions carried out by the ruling elite, the entire system of social institutions controlled by it and, above all, the state and called domestic and foreign policy.

Another structuring of political activity is also possible, when such main blocks are distinguished in it as:

Professional political activity, which in turn is realized as a political functioning (the activity of the political bureaucracy, officials, apparatuses) and political leadership, which is the core of management social processes in society. However, identifying political leadership with any kind of social management illegally. The main content of political leadership: the development, adoption and implementation of decisions that regulate the activities of political and civil society;

Political participation refers to various types of individual and group non-professional activities related to politics. Forms of political participation can be very diverse in direction, significance, and effectiveness. Distinguish between active, proactive, passive, supportive participation. The most significant types of political participation can be: activities in political organizations, movements, parties; attending political meetings; electoral activity. The literature distinguishes: direct and indirect participation; autonomous and mobilized. The most important function of political participation is the formation of policy and control over its implementation, the formation and establishment of political culture, control over the behavior of political elites.

The political activity of people is inextricably linked with their behavior. There is no unambiguous understanding of the category "political behavior" in the literature; there are three points of view on this issue:

1. Behavior is outward manifestation political action;

2. Political behavior and political action are identical concepts;

3. Political behavior is a specific form of political activity.

The specifics of political behavior is as follows:

This is primarily a subject-subject relationship, while political activity is primarily a subject-object relationship;

Political behavior is a type of activity that is directed at the subject himself and expresses his state in the process of action.

G.P. The Eternal considers behavior as a kind of activity aimed at changing the state of the subject, and not at changing what is outside the subject.

The foregoing allows us to note that the concept of "behavior" refers to any political actions that characterize the state of the subject during the activity. This interpretation of this concept corresponds to its definition from a psychological point of view. The specificity of political behavior, in contrast to activity, is manifested in specific varieties of its subjects. These are individuals, groups, masses, crowds. Accordingly, the types of behavior are distinguished: individual, group, mass. In addition, behavior can be classified: based on motives - conscious, unconscious, arbitrary, spontaneous; according to situational features - stable, unstable, crisis, unexpected; by means of manifestation - rebellion, protest, mass discontent; by duration - long-term, short-term; by direction - conscious, controlled, uncontrolled (impulsive, pathological).

Thus, despite the fact that political behavior is inseparable from political activity, its analysis does not duplicate the explanation of political activity, but allows revealing the state of subjects of various levels and modifications in various processes this activity.

Literature

1. Melnik V.A. Political science: A textbook for universities. - Mn., 1996. - Ch. 9. - § 1.

2. Zerkin D.L. Fundamentals of political science: a course of lectures. - Rostov n / D., 1997. - S. 306-325.

3. Political science: a course of lectures / Ed. M.N. Marchenko. - M., 1999. - S. 301-316.

4. Demidov A.K. Political activity. - Saratov, 1987.

Lecture 12

Control questions and work protection

Methodology and procedure for performing work

Equipment and materials

To perform laboratory work, the following equipment and materials are required:

Personal Computer, which contains the microprocessor model Intel 804486 and higher;

Hard magnetic disk with a capacity of 1 GB or more;

Operating system of the Windows family version not lower than 98;

Excel spreadsheet processor.

1. Turn on the computer.

2. Download the EXCEL program.

3. Create three payrolls for departments respectively: department1, department2, department3 on three sheets in one book of the following form:

The table should have 10 entries.

On the next sheet, create a pivot table:

Consolidated statement of issuance wages employees of LLC "Computer World"

4.Save the book in your folder, choose a name arbitrarily.

1. Form of the report - written.

2. Describe the performance of work when performing laboratory work.

3.Demonstrate this work on PC.

4. Answer security questions.

1.Tell us about the method of transferring data from one table to another?

2. What is the difference between the method of copying data using the Edit, Copy commands from the method considered in this laboratory work?

3. How to multiply values ​​across the entire pivot table?

4. How to use the function wizard to use the formula for calculating the average value?

5 What other options does the Function Wizard provide?

1) Political activity.

2) Political leadership.

3) Typology of leaders.

1) Political activity. The functioning of the political system is the process of action of its subjects: state institutions, parties, public organizations, elites, leaders and all citizens. The state, for example, as M. Weber noted, is a complex of specific joint actions of people.

The concept of activity covers the whole variety of forms of active attitude of people to the world around them - natural and social, including its expedient change in accordance with human needs. Each sphere of society's life (economic, social, spiritual, etc.) is characterized by the totality of its inherent forms and activities, as well as social relations.

A special place is occupied by political activity, which is the main content of the political sphere of life. Political activity is a set of organized actions of subjects both within the political system and outside it, subordinated to the implementation of common social interests and goals. Basically, political activity is the management and management of social relations with the help of institutions of power. Its essence is the management of people, human communities.

The specific content of political activity is: participation in the affairs of the state, determining the forms, tasks and directions of the state, the distribution of power, control over its activities, as well as other impact on political institutions. Each of the moments noted generalizes diverse types of activity: the direct performance of political functions by people within the framework of government institutions and political parties and indirect participation associated with the delegation of powers to certain institutions; professional and non-professional activities; leading and executive activities aimed at strengthening this political system or, on the contrary, at its destruction; institutionalized or non-institutionalized activities (for example, extremism); systemic or non-systemic, etc. M. Weber, speaking about the composition of political activity, emphasized, first of all, the activity of maintaining order in the country, i.e., "existing relations of domination."

If we talk about the institutions that make up the political system, then the activity of each of them has natural features and, above all, various means their achievements. Every political and public institution essentially represents a certain system of activities.

The essence of political activity is revealed in the specifics of its object and structural elements: the subject, goals, means, conditions, knowledge, motivation, and, finally, the very process of activity.

The direct object of political activity is political values, institutions, politic system in general and the social groups, parties, elites, and leaders standing behind them.

The sphere of political activity does not include society as a whole, not social class relations in all possible aspects, but only the relations of society, social groups, classes, strata, elites to the institutions of political power and the latter to society.

The action of an individual acquires political meaning insofar as it is included in the system of social relations and is an element group activity. There is another point of view on the content of political activity. According to M. Weber, political action (like any social action) can be understood only on the basis of the behavior of individuals.

Unlike other subjects of social action, the subject of political activity is characterized, first of all, by the fact that it always acts as an organized (in one form or another degree) public force. The political forces acting in a given situation, in a given political process, are always one way or another organized social groups, classes, strata, national communities, and finally, international associations (state unions, movements, etc.). Political action in any case is the action of groups of people (and not separate, disparate individuals), united by a certain common goal and guided by general rules"games". The highest form of organization of political activity are political institutions, including the state and political parties.

2) Political leadership. The unequal position of participants in political life in the political hierarchy is due to their varying degrees of proximity to power and the ability to make strategic decisions, as well as the ability to influence social change. Even within the elite, some of its representatives differ from others in their priority in their influence on society. A person who has a permanent and decisive impact on society, state, organization, is called a political leader. The tasks of leaders include the development of agreed development goals, the distribution of functions and roles among the participants in social interactions, the streamlining of the behavior of integral elements of the system in order to increase the efficiency of the functioning of society as a whole. Thus, the actual significance of the problem of leadership is connected with the search for effective forms of leadership and management of social processes.

Theories of leadership. Community leadership is social function, due to the ability of a person to consciously set generally significant goals and determine ways to achieve them within the framework of political institutions created for this. Specific forms and ways of exercising leadership depend on the cultural maturity of the society, the level of autonomy of various interest groups, and the awareness of the need for collective action to support the progress of the social system as a whole.

One can understand the phenomenon of leadership and its evolution by analyzing its components: 1) the character of the leader; 2) him political beliefs; 3) motivation of political activity; 4) properties of his supporters and all political subjects interacting with him; 5) the specific historical situation when the leader came to power; 6) technology of implementation of leadership. A holistic and multifaceted picture of the manifestation of leadership develops as society evolves, the complexity of social relationships that actualize the specific functions of a leader.

In primitive In societies, the functions of a leader are weak and are reduced mainly to ensuring the physical survival of community members. The leaders themselves appear as heroes endowed with special physical qualities and moral virtues. Thus, Plato portrayed the leader as a person who has an innate propensity for knowledge, distinguished by a resolute rejection of lies, a love of truth. According to his ideas, modesty, nobility, justice, generosity, spiritual perfection are inherent in the leader.

The ethical and mythological tradition in the analysis of political leadership retained its influence in the Middle Ages, introducing into it the idea that leaders were chosen by God, in contrast to mere mortals.

N. Machiavelli transferred the problem of political leadership from the realm of the imaginary and proper to the plane of real life. In the works "The Sovereign" and "Reflections on the First Decade of Titus Livius" he defined the nature, functions and technology of leadership. The character of the leader N. Machiavelli derived from the interaction of the ruler and subjects. A wise leader combines the qualities of a lion (strength and honesty) and the qualities of a fox (mystification and skillful pretense). Therefore, he has both innate and acquired qualities. By nature, a person is given less than he receives, living in society. He is straightforward, cunning or talented by birth, but ambition, greed, vanity, cowardice are formed in the process of socialization of the individual.

Dissatisfaction is the stimulus for active activity. The fact is that people always want more, but they can not always achieve this. The gap between the desired and the actual gives rise to a dangerous tension that can break a person, make him greedy, envious and insidious, since the desire to receive exceeds our strength, and opportunities are always lacking. As a result, there is dissatisfaction with what a person already owns. N. Machiavelli called this state of dissatisfaction. It is she who contributes to the transformation of the desired into reality.

The role of a leader in society is determined by the functions that he is called upon to perform. Among the most important functions, N. Machiavelli singled out the provision of public order and stability in society; integration of heterogeneous interests and mobilization of the population for the solution of generally significant tasks. In general, N. Machiavelli's theory of leadership is built on four provisions (variables): 1) the leader's power is rooted in the support of his supporters; 2) subordinates must know what they can expect from their leader, and understand what he expects from them; 3) the leader must have the will to survive; 4) the ruler is always a model of wisdom and justice for his supporters.

In the future, researchers of leadership focused on certain components of this multifaceted phenomenon: either on the traits and origins of a leader; either on the social context of his leadership, that is, the social conditions of coming to power and exercising leadership; or on the nature of the relationship between the leader and his supporters; or the results of the interaction between the leader and his followers in certain situations. The emphasis in the analysis of leadership on a particular variable led to an ambiguous interpretation of this phenomenon and initiated the emergence of a number of theories that explored the nature of leadership. Among the most common and generally accepted theories of leadership are trait theory, situational analysis theory, situational personality theory, integrative leadership theory.

IN trait theories (C. Beard, E. Bogardus, Y. Jennings etc.), a leader is seen as a combination of certain psychological traits, the presence of which contributes to his promotion to leading positions and gives him the ability to make power decisions in relation to other people.

Trait theory arose in the early 20th century. influenced by the studies of the English anthropologist F. Galton, who explained the nature of leadership from the standpoint of heredity. The main idea of ​​this approach is the assertion that if a leader has special qualities that distinguish him from supporters, then these qualities can be distinguished. These qualities are inherited.

Senior officials are perceived as exceptional in terms of the dominant political culture and mentality, the population ascribes certain virtues to them. The psychological interpretation of leadership also focuses on the motivation of the leader's behavior. A manifestation of extreme psychologism in understanding the nature of leadership is the concept of psychoanalysis 3. Freud, who interpreted political leadership as a sphere of manifestation of repressed libido - an unconscious attraction of a sexual nature.

An analysis of the destructive type of political behavior with features of masochism and sadism was given by the American psychologist E. Fromm in his work “Necrophiles and Adolf Hitler”. Using the method of psychobiography, E. Fromm traced, starting from early childhood, the process of formation of the destructive political leadership of the leader of Nazi Germany.

However, the isolation of the phenomenon of leadership from the totality of psychological traits of a person or from his motivations and motives (conscious and unconscious) is not able to answer practical questions related to the characteristics of specific leaders.

The theory tried to overcome the psychological interpretation of leadership situational analysis , according to which the leader appears as a result of a confluence of circumstances of place, time, and others. In the life of the group different situations individual individuals stand out who are superior to others in at least one quality. And since it is this quality that is in demand by the prevailing conditions, the person who possesses it becomes a leader. Situational Theory of Leadership considers the leader as a function of a certain situation, emphasizing the relativity of the traits inherent in the leader, and suggesting that qualitatively different circumstances may require qualitatively different leaders.

Attempts to avoid extremes in the interpretation of the phenomenon of leadership (either from the standpoint of the theory of traits, or within the framework of the theory of situational analysis) objectively required expanding the boundaries of the analysis of the factors that form leading positions and determine the content of power influence. These attempts led to the emergence of personality-situational theory. Her Supporters personality-situational theory (G. Gert and S. Mills) tried to overcome the shortcomings of the above theories. Among the variables of leadership, allowing to know its nature, they singled out four factors: 1) the traits and motives of the leader as a person; 2) the images of the leader and the motives that exist in the minds of his followers, prompting them to follow him; 3) characteristics of the leader's role; 4) legal and institutional conditions of its activity.

American political scientist Margaret J. Hermann expanded the number of variables that, in her opinion, allow to reveal the essence of leadership more deeply, including: 1) the main political beliefs of the leader; 2) the political style of the leader; 3) the motives that guide the leader; 4) the leader's reaction to pressure and stress; 5) the circumstances due to which the leader found himself in the position of leader for the first time; 6) previous political experience of the leader; 7) the political climate in which the leader began his political career.

Thus, political science has moved from one-sided psychologism in the analysis of leadership to a more holistic study of this phenomenon using sociological approaches.

The sociological interpretation of the nature of leadership focuses more on the analysis of the interaction between the leader and his followers. It allows you to identify the technology of effective leadership, to understand the logic of the political behavior of the leader.

Within the framework of the integrative approach, motivational concepts of leadership and theories that focus on the specifics of political styles have recently dominated. The latter direction makes it possible to reveal the predictability of the actions of a political leader and their possible effectiveness.

Despite the differences in the interpretation of leadership, in understanding its nature, it is seen as a permanent, priority influence of an individual on society or a group. This influence depends on a number of variables: on the psychological personality traits, on the nature of the relationship between the leader and his supporters, on the motivation of leadership behavior and the behavior of his supporters.

3) Typology of leaders and their functions. The manifestations of leadership are quite diverse. Attempts to classify and typify them are caused by the desire to predict the likely behavior of leaders on the basis of certain signs.

The typology of leadership based on the personal qualities of the leader and the specific situation in which he performs his functions was proposed by the German sociologist M. Weber in his work “Charismatic Domination”. As a classification feature, he put forward the concept of "authority", which he defines as "the probability that orders will meet obedience from certain group of people". The ability to give orders and expect their execution is based on various resources of power. Accordingly, M. Weber identified three types of domination - traditional, rational-legal, charismatic.

Traditional Leadership relies on customs and traditions, the power of habit, which are rooted in the distant past. The habit of obedience is based on the belief in the sanctity of the tradition of transferring power by inheritance: the leader acquires the right to rule due to his origin. This is the type of authority that was once used by the leader of the tribe, the head of the clan, the monarch.

Charismatic Leadership is based on the belief in God's chosen personality, in the exceptional qualities of this person. Charismatic power, noted M. Weber, "is characterized by the personal devotion of subjects to a person and their faith only in his personality, which is distinguished by outstanding qualities, heroism or other distinctive properties that turn him into a leader." Charismatic leadership is inherent in transitional societies that are undergoing modernization, therefore charismatic domination can create conditions either for traditional power (for example, for a return to the institution of a monarchy), or for a rational-legal one. The peculiarity of charismatic power is that it is devoid of any objective grounds (for example, it does not rely on law, tradition), but exists due to the exclusively personal qualities of a charismatic leader, faith in him.

Rational legal leadership represents bureaucracy. The power of authority is recognized by virtue of "legality", by virtue of faith in the legitimacy legal status and "competence" based on rationally established laws. Power is based on a single code accepted by the whole society. legal regulations. The competence of each holder of power is determined by the constitution and legal norms.

One of the most modern and widespread typologies of leaders is M. Hermann's system, which classifies leaders based on their image. M. Hermann identifies four images of leaders based on four variables: the character of the leader; properties of his supporters; ways of interconnection between the leader and his supporters; specific situation in which leadership is exercised.

The first collective image of a leader is standard-bearer leader . He is distinguished by his own view of reality, the presence of an image of the desired future and knowledge of the means to achieve it. Such a leader determines the nature of what is happening, the pace and methods of transformation. The flag-bearing leaders include M. Gandhi, V.I. Lenin, Martin L. King and others.

The second collective image of the leader - servant leader. He achieves recognition through the expression of the interests of his adherents. The leader acts on their behalf, he is the agent of the group. In practice, the leader-servant is guided by what is expected of him, what his constituents believe and need (L.I. Brezhneva, K.U. Chernenko).

The third image leader-dealer. Its essential feature lies in the ability to convince. He achieves recognition from his supporters by knowing their needs, by the desire to satisfy them. Through the ability to persuade the leader-merchant involves adherents in the implementation of their plans. R. Reagan can be considered an example of this type of leader.

The fourth image firefighter leader. It is distinguished by a quick response to the urgent demands of the time, formulated by its supporters. He is able to act effectively in extreme conditions, quickly make decisions, adequately respond to the situation. Most leaders in modern societies can be attributed to this type.

The selection of four collective images of leaders is rather conditional, since such types are rarely found in their pure form. Most often, the leadership of one person at various stages of her political career combines certain properties of each of the listed ideal types.

Recently, classifications of leaders according to the style of behavior have dominated. Five political styles can be distinguished according to the degree of dominance of certain qualities: paranoid, demonstrative, compulsive, depressive and schizoid , although in history there are leaders who combine several styles.

Paranoid political style. It corresponds to the type of leader, which can be designated by the term "master". Such a person is characterized by suspicion, distrust of others, hypersensitivity to hidden threats and motives, a constant thirst for power, control over other people. His behavior and actions are often unpredictable. A paranoid-style politician does not accept a point of view other than his own, rejects any information that does not confirm his theories, attitudes and beliefs (I.V. Stalin, Ivan the Terrible).

Demonstrative political style characteristic of the type of leader who can be called an "artist", since he always "plays for the audience." He is distinguished by a love of demonstrations, he is seized by a passionate desire to please, to constantly attract attention to himself. In many ways, his behavior, political actions depend on whether others like him, whether he is loved by the crowd or not. As a result, he is quite “controllable”, predictable, and may lose his vigilance after hearing enough flatterers. However, he can lose his composure when faced with criticism (A.F. Kerensky, L.D. Trotsky, V.V. Zhirinovsky).

Compulsive political style usually characteristic of a leader whose collective image can be described by the term "excellent student". It is characterized by an almost obsessive desire to do everything in the best way, regardless of the possibilities. The style of his behavior is characterized by tension, lack of lightness, flexibility, maneuver. He is constantly preoccupied, petty, too punctual, dogmatically approaches all instructions, rules, which often causes conflicts in power structures. An “excellent student” feels especially uncomfortable in extreme conditions, when it is necessary to make decisions quickly and use non-standard methods. (L.I. Brezhnev).

Depressive political style represents "comrade-in-arms". A leader of this type is not able to play a leading role and therefore tries to unite with those who can really "make politics". "Companion" often idealizes individuals and political movements, while he himself lags behind events. It does not have a clear political course, sustainable approaches to solving emerging problems. Accepts political reality cautiously and pessimistically, revealing weakness and political lack of will (Nicholas II).

Schizoid political style closely associated with depression. It is represented by the leader - "loner". Self-isolation and self-withdrawal from participation in specific events are more pronounced. The "loner" does not want to join any particular movement and prefers the position of an outside observer. But political responsibility in this case is practically absent. The schizoid style of behavior is historically transient, less independent and ineffective. The “loner” leader, as he participates in political life and expands his powers, transforms his style, supplementing it with the features of a paranoid and demonstrative style. Such a change in the political style was characteristic of the political biography of V.I. Lenin (before the revolution of 1917 - "loner", and after it the features of "owner" and "artist" were added).

The indicated political styles, singled out as “ideal”, are quite rare, they act as trends. They are conditioned by the mentality and culture of society, which include stable ideas about the desired model of society and the role of the leader in it, about the preferred ways to solve emerging problems. Politics differ markedly due to non-identity national cultures various countries. The type of dominant culture also determines the nature of the political orientations characteristic of leaders.