Article social design abroad. Actual problems of social design in Russia

The concept of the project first arose in the Roman architectural school of the 16th century to denote sketches, plans.

The project method originated in the second half of the 19th century in agricultural schools in the United States and was based on the theoretical concepts of "pragmatic pedagogy", the founder of which was the American idealist philosopher John Dewey (1859-1952). According to his views, only that which is useful to people, which gives a practical result and is aimed at the benefit of the whole society, is true and valuable.

Actively promoting the idea of ​​civic engagement, the inclusion of the younger generation in public life and considering it as one of the most important goals of education, John Dewey proposed to build education as an active, expedient project activity of children. Its essence lies in solving urgent life, personally significant problems for the child through the study of the surrounding reality, the acquisition of new knowledge and their practical application in real life. Such activities, as a rule, are organized on the basis of joint work, cooperation of children in the process of working on a project. J. Dewey proceeded from the understanding of childhood not as a stage of preparation for a future adult life, but as a full-fledged period of human existence. And this means that education should provide not only knowledge that an adult will need in the future, but also knowledge, skills and abilities that can already today help a child in solving his pressing life problems.

Thus, Dewey's model of the educational process in the school is characterized by the reality educational material, the integrity of the physical, mental and emotional-volitional spheres in cognitive activity children, relying on the independent activity of the child - learning by "doing", problematicness, as the basis for the development of critical thinking, using a variety of gaming activity in learning (spontaneous games that repeat the life of adults, organized games, making toys, design work, dramatization, role-playing games and etc.).

Society's interest in social forecasting is historically associated with attempts to predict the occurrence of certain events, as well as the development various processes. In the conditions of global wars and local military conflicts, economic and political upheavals, with which the whole world history of the twentieth century, the appeal to social forecasting was mainly emergency. The scientific need for forecasting was formulated by the American scientist N. Wiener in the form of the foundations of cybernetics in the 40s. XX century. In 1968, when the entire world community was concerned about the ongoing threats of the start of a third world war, the prominent public figure and industrialist A. Peccei founded the "Club of Rome" - international organization scientists, politicians and entrepreneurs, the purpose of which was to draw attention to the strategic problems and prospects of world development. The reports prepared for the club by the prominent scientists J. Forrester, D. Tinbergen, B. Gavrilishin and others gave impetus to the development of science.

Social design is a term that has been used relatively recently - since the 70-80s of the last century. Although, as the author of one of the early works on the methodology social design, V.M. Rozin, the first attempt to develop a global social project was made by Plato, who developed the doctrine of an ideal state. After the 1917 revolution, Russia becomes a huge field for global social experiments. The subject of design is society as a whole, including a person - every citizen of this society. The task of forming a new person was included in the program documents of the CPSU. This attitude penetrated so deeply into the minds of many leaders that in 1991, after the August coup, at one of the regional meetings, a major official in the education system quite seriously stated that "the task of the education system is to design a new type of child."

Social design as a branch of sociological science appeared in the 20th century, when it became obvious that ignoring the social aspects of development is fraught with serious costs in the functioning of modern societies.

At the first stages of its formation, it was derived from scientific and technical design. Historically, scientifically based design methods were first used in architecture and mechanical engineering. Designing is becoming more and more widespread in solving the problems of resettlement, as well as in improving management systems.

As for social design, its initial principles were developed by J. Dietrich, T. Tiori, D. Fray, P. Hillosh, F. Hanika and other researchers.

SCHOOL SPACE

Tkacheva Tatyana Yurievna,

teacher of history and social studies, MOAU "Grigorievskaya secondary school"

Sol-Iletsk district

Orenburg region

Modern development of the Russian state, the formation of civil society requires that the education system contribute to the formation of a conscious citizen, capable of cooperation, characterized by mobility, dynamism, with a sense of responsibility for his country.

Students want their school to be interesting to learn, to be treated with respect, to see them as individuals, to be able to communicate with each other, to have academic success and receive a quality education.

Parents of schoolchildren today have become real subjects of social order in educational process. They want their children to be mobile, able to adapt to modern conditions, both in the city and in the countryside.

Teachers want conditions for their creative and professional potential to be created, for parents to take an active part in the educational process, and for the state to pay attention to solving the problems of teaching.

The school must find the best balance for itself between the fulfillment of the state order and public needs, as well as between modern educational technologies and the cultural, historical, and social characteristics of the village.

Social design is the means by which it is possible to fulfill the state order and satisfy social needs.

I, as a teacher of history and social studies, see one of the main areas of my work - the development by students of basic social skills, practical skills in the field of social relations. The skills of solving socially significant problems are more effectively mastered by students in the course of social practice, when the guys participate in the creation of social projects.

Social projects- these are projects that are of a practical and applied nature, aimed at solving problems at the local level. A positive feature of social design is the opportunity for students to see the results of their activities through sociological surveys, interviews, to see the attitude of various categories of the population to the topic of their project. Social projects give students the opportunity to connect and correlate the general ideas received during the lessons with the real life in which they are involved, their friends, families, teachers, social life, with social and political events taking place on the scale of a microdistrict, city, region, and finally, the country as a whole. During the implementation of projects, students actively use their knowledge, communicate and collaborate with each other.

From a psychological point of view, work on a social project is for students the practice of regulating interpersonal relationships, developing skills business communication, mastering the basics of long-term planning, decision-making and awareness of responsibility for their implementation.

For a teacher, social design is an integrated didactic tool for development, training, education, which allows you to form the social competence of students, develop specific skills and abilities: design, forecasting, research, presentation.

For both teachers and students, participation in the project should be carried out exclusively on a voluntary basis. Experience shows that the best projects are the result of sincere interest and high intrinsic motivation of teachers and students.

Effective work over the project requires a clear distribution of responsibilities between team members. When assigning responsibilities, personal qualities, skills and, of course, the interests and inclinations of team members should be taken into account.

The success of the work on the project is largely determined by the nature of the relationship between its young and adult participants. The scheme of work, which assumes that the teacher is the leader of the project, and the students are its executors, does not lead to success. The teacher should carry out the overall coordination of the activities of schoolchildren, acting as an assistant and consultant, but the main actors in the project are children.

Social design requires painstaking and time-consuming work, and sometimes certain material costs. That is why it is extremely important for the successful implementation of the project support of the administration, and, above all, heads of educational institutions. Providing school audiences and technical equipment for working on the project, materials for designing a portfolio, encouraging teachers and students who are actively involved in project activities - this is just an approximate list of possible forms of project support from the administration of educational institutions.

The use of information and communication technologies in project activities provides new opportunities:

Search and use necessary information, which is especially important for a rural school due to the limited literature in the school library;

Present the protection of projects visually, figuratively at the level of emotional perception.

It is very important that the project participants feel the usefulness of their work, see how their proposals find their practical implementation. This is possible with a sincere interest in social design and its results of representatives of power structures and, above all, local governments.

In order to develop democratic habits in students, to help them become active citizens of our city, I suggest that they leave the school to see the socially significant problems of the village, the problems of other people.

Work on the social project is carried out in stages. At the first stage the guys and I identify a social problem, conduct an analysis, determine the goals, objectives of the project, expected results, draw up a work plan, distribute responsibilities between group members, determine necessary resources and their sources. At the implementation stage social project, students collect information, perform research, look for business partners, conduct planned activities (the role of the teacher at this stage is a consultant). The next stage is the project presentation stage. when students verbally defend the project, the guys present the logic and effectiveness of their project, show computer presentation project (the role of the teacher at this stage is the consultant). And at the last stage, the stage of reflection, the guys and I sum up, analyze the results, determine the social significance of the project, inform the public about the results of the project. The authors of social projects present them at the annual regional competition "I am a citizen of Russia", where they win prizes.

Our social partners in the work on projects were local governments, the administration of the colony-settlement IKP-12, YuK 25/6, Chashkan LLC, and parents. We can say about the readiness of our social partners to listen to the arguments of the guys, to accept their proposals.

My experience in organizing work on social projects made it possible to identify the following positive results this method:

in the course of working on social projects, students develop skills social behavior, the ability to communicate with adults, conduct a dialogue, work with official documents, defend one's rights, teamwork skills;

expanding students' knowledge about the complexities, relationships of the surrounding reality;

the attention of the children is drawn to the actual social problems of the city, the surrounding people;

children are involved in real practical activities.

Thus, social design is a real school of life, the lessons of which will help teenagers, both in ordinary life and in the most unexpected circumstances. Working on a social project, solving the social problems of a particular community, making decisions to take responsibility for the future of their city, a teenager becomes a person, a citizen, an inhabitant of planet Earth.

The projects proposed by schoolchildren help government officials to take a fresh look at acute public problems and even provide practical assistance in solving them. Today's school team leaders can be seen as personnel reserve state authorities and local self-government.

Our experience shows that by teaching adolescents social interaction and designing socially significant cases, supporting their initiatives, we can talk about fostering an active citizenship of young citizens.

Social design. Social design is a scientific, theoretical and at the same time substantive practical activity to create development projects social systems, institutions, social objects, their properties and relations based on social foresight, forecasting and planning of special obviously necessary qualities and properties that are a significant social need. The predicted, modeled and constructed qualities and properties of social objects make it possible to manage social processes and are an expression of the socially new that characterizes the trends of modern social development. Accordingly, social design is associated with innovative activities and introduction of social innovations.

Social design is a synthesis of scientific and theoretical, subject practical activities and social education. As a scientific and theoretical activity, social design concerns primarily such scientific areas as sociology, social work (socionomy), social philosophy, political science, conflict studies, regional studies, and economics. As a subject-practical activity, social design is expressed in the creation of specific social projects, in planning and managing the development of territorial-industrial, economic, socio-cultural and other complexes. As an element of the education system, social design is an academic discipline related to the study of design methodology and technology, design tools, its system principles, forms and methods.

The development of social design is associated with the use of various mathematical methods and the creation of mathematical models using computer technology. At the same time, the multivariance of different vectors of social development is characterized by the use of such fundamental philosophical concepts as the concept of possible worlds, developed in the works of such classical philosophers as Gottfried Leibniz and Immanuel Kant, as well as the principles of cybernetics and synergetics, to comprehend the current and possible trends in social dynamics, involving such concepts as social entropy and its levels, social destruction, chaos and order, social harmony, social dynamics, social expectation and social projection. A systematic understanding of social design brings this field of knowledge to the level of social design theory, which includes a subordinated system of concepts and principles, methodologies and methods, technologies and tools, forms and means of social foresight, as well as types and types of social projects, strategies and tactics project activity.

The term "design" itself (from the Latin "projectus" - thrown forward: design - the process of creating a prototype, a prototype of a proposed or possible object, a state - a specific activity, the result of which is a scientifically theoretical and practically justified definition of options for the predicted and planned development of new processes and phenomena Design - component management, which allows you to ensure the implementation of controllability and controllability of a certain process.

Design means determining versions or options for the development or change of a particular phenomenon. In order to accurately and unambiguously comprehend the essence of design, it is necessary to correlate it with concepts that are close in meaning and meaning. Such concepts are the following: planning, projection, anticipation, foresight, forecasting, design, modeling. Identification of options for the development or change of the object makes it possible to choose tactics and strategies for interacting with this object, managing the object, developing a technology for influencing it, and choosing ways for the systematic introduction of innovations. Understanding these concepts, the stages of their achievement and implementation methods is the essence of design. All these concepts as specific cognitive methods and techniques in the appropriate sequence are considered in this work, but it seems necessary to clarify the content of these concepts as working terms:

Planning is a scientifically and practically substantiated determination of goals, identification of tasks, deadlines, rates and proportions for the development of a particular phenomenon, its implementation and implementation in the interests of society.

Foresight - in a narrow sense, prediction, in a broader sense, preferable knowledge about events or phenomena that exist, but are not fixed in the available experience. Foresight can be a simple anticipation, a prediction based on biological and psychophysiological abilities (the initial stage) and foresight itself (the highest stage) - a human idea of ​​the future fate of oneself, one's own qualities, one's environment and the nearest contact microenvironment. Scientific foresight is based on identifying the patterns of development of a phenomenon or event, when the reasons for its inception of the form of functioning and the course of development are known.

Forecasting is a form of foresight, expressed in goal-setting, programming and management of the planned process of a phenomenon based on the identified parameters of its occurrence, existence, sustainable forms and development trends. It is connected with the prediction of the direction of development of the phenomenon in the future, by transferring to it ideas about how the phenomenon develops in the present. This transfer is carried out using the methods of extrapolation, modeling and examination. It is expressed in the analysis of the forecast background, the formation of initial forecast models, search forecasts, the formation of normative forecast models, their evaluation.

Social design is the design of social objects, social qualities, social processes and relationships. Unlike the design of objects, when changing which the subjective factor is not taken into account, this factor should be taken into account when designing social objects. Its consideration largely determines the specifics of social design. At the same time, the following parameters should be laid in the foundations of social design:

The inconsistency of the social object;

Multi-vector development of a social object;

The impossibility of describing a social object by a finite number of terms of any social theory (fundamentally non-formalizable);

The multifactorial nature of the existence of a social object;

The presence of many subjective components that determine the ratio of what should be and what is in relation to the development of a social object;

Subjective factors in the formation of social expectation, social forecast and social design;

Factors that determine different criteria for assessing the maturity of the development of a social object.

The factors listed above are not the final list of reasons that determine the specifics of social design. They are only a system of those parametric features that characterize the fact that the design of social objects is fundamentally different from the design of such objects that do not have these features.

Social design makes it possible to assess the validity of the forecast, develop a scientifically based plan social development. The design also takes into account the possibility of an unsuccessful experiment to test ideas, the so-called negative result. Upon receipt, a thorough analysis of the reasons is necessary, which caused the discrepancy in solving the tasks. The process of social design is also called "social construction".

Methods of social design. Social design uses special techniques. Techniques are ways to achieve a goal; the construction of a social project is an ordered activity of the subject of design in a certain way. Among the design techniques, the following should be distinguished: the technique of the matrix of ideas, the technique of getting used to the role, the analogy method, the association method, the brainstorming technique, the synectics technique.

Methodology of the matrix of ideas. The technique of the matrix of ideas, when various solutions are compiled on the basis of several independent variables. Usually, the development of a social project depends on the complexity and priority of the tasks set, on the time frame within which the plan is required to be implemented, as well as on material, labor and financial resources. By calculating the options from these variables, you can determine the most efficient way project implementation under given conditions. This important technique is used, as a rule, with limited possibilities.

The method of getting used to the role. Role-playing helps you get a better idea of ​​what needs to be done in the design process. This is not just a peek into the future that is being designed, but a desire to understand more deeply how the project will be implemented. Today, any problem requires taking into account the interests and desires of people, and this is best achieved when the designer carefully studies the conditions in which the process takes place.

analogy method. The analogy method is a general scientific and logical method, with the help of which, based on the similarity, similarity of objects in any properties, features or relationships, an assumption (prediction) is formulated about the presence of these properties, features or relationships in a phenomenon that acts as an object of design. The analogy can be simple, widespread, strict and non-strict. The statement (forecast and design) by analogy is more reliable if the following circumstances are taken into account:

The more common features (PI, P2, .... Rp) are known for the compared objects, the higher the degree of probability of inference by analogy;

The more significant the common features found in the compared objects, the higher the degree of probability;

The deeper the mutual natural connection of the compared objects is known, the higher the degree of probability;

If the object in respect of which we predict by analogy has some property that is incompatible with the property whose existence is predicted, then the general similarity does not matter.

association method. When preparing a project, it often becomes necessary to make a new decision, which is caused by dissatisfaction with the existing practice. This raises the question of how to improve the situation, to find a more rational and efficient way of managing.

Taking into account the accumulated knowledge, approaches are being developed that allow you to seriously modify the object of influence, that is, not only the forms are affected, but also the essential content elements. The association method involves a combination of adaptation, modification and complete reorganization techniques.

Brainstorming technique. Brainstorming technique, which is associated with the generation of ideas, with their equal competition, with the possibility of comparison. It is carried out through communicative interaction, in which various projects are discussed, assessments, examination of facts, and polemics of opinions are carried out.

Synectics technique. According to this technique, several proposed ideas are considered separately from each other, and then a certain relationship and interdependence is established between them.

Terms of the project activity. Among the characteristics of social design, a special place is occupied by conditions - a system of social phenomena and processes that have a certain impact on project activities. The conditions of project activity include many components - relationships, processes, environment, actions, things, activities, means, etc.

The design background is a set of conditions external to the design object that significantly affect its functioning and development. One of the elements of social activity is social action. Social action is the impact of a person as a subject of social activity on a controlled subsystem (social structure), environment, region, team, group, personality, aimed at implementing the developed project, achieving the goal,.

When designing systems, social activity is a functional-temporal sequence of social actions ( social technology design process), and the project is a special form of displaying needs, interests, attitudes, aspirations, expressed in a certain symbolic form.

Mironenko N. V., Leonova O. V. |

The evolution of project management development |

in Russia and abroad §

E01 10.22394/1726-1139-2017-6-65-72 ^

Mironenko Nadezhda Viktorovna ^

Central Russian Institute of Management - branch of the RANEPA (Orel) Senior Research Fellow Candidate of Economic Sciences, Associate Professor [email protected]

Leonova Oksana Vyacheslavovna

Central Russian Institute of Management - branch of the RANEPA (Orel)

Director of the Center "Higher School government controlled and professional development of personnel"

PhD in Economics, Associate Professor

[email protected]

The article presents the history of the implementation of project management and structured the best national practices for its implementation. The authors identified four waves in the history of the development of project management in the world. It is indicated that the fifth wave is currently underway, characterized by informatization management processes implementation of project management. The need for project evaluation was considered. The directions of permanent development of project management are highlighted.

KEYWORDS

project management, project evaluation, socially oriented non-profit organizations

Mironenko N. V., Leonova O. V. Evolution of Project Management Development in Russia and Abroad

Mironenko Nadezhda Viktorovna

Central Russian Institute of Management, branch of RANEPA (orel, Russian Federation)

senior research associate

PhD in Economics, Associate Professor

[email protected]

Leonova Oksana Vyacheslavovna

Central Russian Institute of Management, branch of RANEPA (orel, Russian Federation) Director of the Center "Higher School of Public Administration and Professional Development" PhD in Economics, associate Professor [email protected]

History of introduction of project management is presented in the article and the best national practices of its introduction are structured. Authors have allocated four waves in the history of development of project management in the world. It is designated that now there passes the fifth wave which is characterized by informatization of administrative processes of introduction of project management. Need of an assessment of projects is considered. The directions of permanent development of project management are allocated.

project management, assessment of projects, socially oriented non-profit organizations

g Currently, project management is becoming one of the tools to improve the efficiency of public administration. Available best on-o The national practices of project management in the public sector, including in the socio-cultural sphere (health, education and culture), confirm the expediency and necessity of introducing this method. x Application system project management, of course, reveals many n-prospects for effective public administration, but for a number of reasons they< реализация не всегда становится возможной. Прежде всего управленческая среда m бывает не готова к определенным изменениям и инновациям . Также немаловажным является отсутствие знаний и навыков в области проектного менеджмента, наблюдается нехватка специалистов, обучение менеджменту проектов практически не ведется.

Civil servants must be able to clearly articulate goals, which ensures the effectiveness of any project, but often specialists have a poor understanding of the results of activities, which makes it difficult to set goals. Of course, it is extremely difficult for an unprepared employee, especially the older generation, to use updated software and electronic databases in their work. The project management system is necessary in the issue of quality management, effective in risk analysis.

Among the problems that arise in the implementation of project management, we highlight the imperfection of the accounting system. In addition, there is often a lack of readiness of personnel to quickly reorient to a new type of activity, as well as the use of a new software. Undoubtedly, the process of modernization of the state regulation system is slowed down by the incorrect attitude of employees to the implementation of measures - civil servants operate within a strict framework of the distribution of duties, which excludes the possibility of combining employees from different structural divisions for the implementation of projects. In addition, the authorities are not able to reorient themselves to the implementation of the project, they continue to exercise their current powers defined by law, while simultaneously trying to implement the project.

In addition to various design practices and their legal regulation in public authorities Russian Federation and its subjects, to date, significant world experience has been accumulated in the implementation of project management and its legal regulation. In particular, countries such as France, Great Britain, Canada, Singapore have a successful experience in the functioning of project management.

National standards concentrate world experience in the field of project management. In particular, the standard of the Project Management Institute in the USA (PMI) - Ansi Pmi Pmbok (Project Management Body of Knowledge) Guide - 2004 Edition is presented in the Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge1. This "Guide" collects the processes and knowledge areas for project management. He identifies nine areas: content management; integration management; cost management; time management; quality control; communications management; personnel Management; Management of risks; project contract management.

Some states, such as Germany, France, Great Britain, Australia, are actively introducing national standards in the field of project management into the system of legal regulation of project management. In addition, international associations for project management are developing, which activate the processes of accumulation and exchange of knowledge in this area.

1 Guide to the body of knowledge on project management [Electronic resource]. URL: http:// pmpractice.ru/knowledgebase/normative/ (date of access: 09/27/2016).

Western countries have stepped up public administration based on project activities since the 1990s. XX century, continuing the permanent development of new directions of project management, which include: the use of project management in public administration and within the framework of interstate projects; development international programs certification of project managers; unification in the field of public administration based on project management in conjunction with the processes of globalization; standardization in the field of project management; introduction of modern information and television communication technologies in the field of public administration based on project management; improvement of project management methods; optimization of the work of the project staff, coupled with the specification of role settings based on developments in the field of socio-psychological research.

In France, the Department for State Modernization is successfully functioning, which in its activities is accountable to the Government of France and whose activities, accordingly, are regulated by the regulatory legal acts of the Government of France. The main activity of this Department is aimed at developing and implementing various projects for the modernization of the socio-economic space in the public administration system while coordinating the work of those involved public institutions.

In Singapore, the Center for Management of State Projects of the Ministry of Finance is actively operating. Its basic functionality is to help government agencies determine the goals and risks of projects. In addition, this center accumulates knowledge about the best design practices in the world, comparing its activities with them.

Organized in Canada project work for the development and development natural resources countries within the framework of the Office of Major Government Projects. The main task of the office is permanent control by the state over the process of developing natural resources and implementing various projects with state participation within this area.

In the UK, a large number of government agencies are implementing various projects, including infrastructure projects, using the practice of public-private partnership, which simultaneously stimulates the development of small and medium-sized businesses in the country.

Consider the periodization of the development of project management. At the same time, we note that, of course, to one degree or another, people have always evaluated: their behavior, the actions of other people, the state of the economy, etc. the established result, which, to a certain extent, has in common social design with planning. Usually there are four periods, or four waves, in the history of the development of project evaluation, which is shown in Fig. 1. Up to the XX century. it was an assessment, so to speak, "by eye", since no criteria were developed, for example, policies in a particular area. There were no special methods, and even the evaluation of social projects was out of the question, because the project approach, as already mentioned, had not yet been discovered, developed and implemented in the social sphere. But the situation gradually began to change.

Thus, the rapid development of valuation activities in relation to various projects and state policies in a particular area was observed in the middle of the 20th century and in the 1960s. It should be noted that the first wave of introduction of valuation activity falls on the 1960s - mid-1970s (see Fig. 1). This period is characterized by the active implementation of both the project approach and the evaluation of social projects.

The fourth wave (from the beginning of the 2000s to the present time)

Canada and EU countries: implementation of cluster assessment

in the public, private (commercial and non-commercial) sectors. Experts are the coordinators, guiding the negotiations to reach a compromise, and monitoring is carried out by all actors

The third wave - the end of the 1987s - the beginning. 2000s

(Switzerland and the Anglo-Saxon countries): carrying out, first of all, internal examination, as well as self-assessment; carried out at the federal level

Premise:

implementation of administrative reforms

The second wave is on Wednesday. 1970s -1989s

Among the leaders: the Netherlands; Great Britain: creating really working political mechanisms and maximizing economic

efficiency (cost/benefit from project implementation)

Background: The impact of the global economic and budgetary crises caused by the 1973 oil shock.

Prerequisite: the formation of a "welfare state", a period of social planning

Rice. 1. The evolution of the development of the evaluation of social projects abroad Compiled by .

The first wave (1960-1975) (USA, Germany and Sweden): a full-fledged evidence-based study aimed at analyzing the ultimate goals and consequences of the implementation of relevant policies

During this first wave, valuation activity developed most actively in the USA, Germany and Sweden. During these years, the formation of a "welfare state" was taking place, which was accompanied by a serious restructuring and accelerated modernization of economic, political and administrative institutions and processes. The key elements in this period were the institutionalization and implementation of assessment procedures. Evaluation of the effectiveness of state policy in various spheres of life was supposed to be a full-fledged scientifically based study aimed at analyzing the ultimate goals and consequences of the implementation of the relevant policy. The purpose of such an evaluation was to improve the results of the implemented policies and to maximize the effectiveness of the impact of social projects and programs.

The second wave of development of valuation activity is observed in the mid-1970s - late 1980s. This period is also sometimes referred to as the period of reductions, since it was directly related to increased attention to the effectiveness of the funds spent and the desire for rationalization and savings, using for this project approach and evaluation methods [ibid.].

At this time, the economies of many Western countries were affected by the global economic and budgetary crises caused by the “oil shock” of 1973. These crises led to a reduction in budget expenditures in the development of state policy in almost any area. The ultimate goals of the evaluation at this stage were the creation of actually working political mechanisms and the maximization of economic efficiency. Increased attention has been paid to evaluating the comparison of the costs of implementing a particular project with the benefits of its implementation. The toolkit of experts working in the field of assessment has increased due to the introduction of preliminary, predictive assessments. Leading positions in the development and implementation of the evaluation of social projects and programs were taken by the Netherlands and the UK.

The third wave of development of valuation activities in social design dates back to the late 1980s - early 2000s. It is closely connected with the implementation of administrative reforms in a number of states and the introduction of the so-called new public administration.

The underlying hypothesis of the new public administration was that a maximum market-oriented state would increase the economic efficiency of both the state itself and the private sector, and could avoid negative side effects in the process. The new public administration is based on the concept of a management cycle, during which the tools and mechanisms typical for the management of private organizations are applied. For example, a three-tier system of restructuring central executive bodies (ministries, services, agencies) was borrowed from the private sector. The difference in evaluation methods is that evaluation during the second wave was mainly external, and its main task was to test and reduce policies within the framework of the welfare state, while the third wave involved primarily internal examination, and also the use of self-assessment.

Evaluation as the most important component of public administration is enshrined in law, and in Switzerland the assessment of the effectiveness of public administration is introduced at the level of the federal Constitution. During this period, the Anglo-Saxon countries and Switzerland began to play a leading role in the development and implementation of the evaluation of social projects and public policy.

The fourth wave of social project evaluation development has been observed since the early 2000s. This period in the development of valuation activities is associated with the introduction of cluster valuation. Cluster evaluation, which is characterized by integrity, horizontal connections and involvement of all project participants, as well as a focus on results, to a certain extent opposes the bureaucratic vertical, both in the public and private (commercial and non-commercial) sectors. The role of people directly involved in evaluating projects is changing - they become not experts, but coordinators guiding negotiations to reach a compromise, and monitoring is already carried out by all actors. This significantly changes not only the nature of valuation activities, but also the procedure for managing social projects. Canada and the countries of the European Union were at the forefront in the field of social project evaluation.

In our country, the project approach began to be introduced in the 1920s in connection with the introduction of planning (for example, GOELRO met all the classical requirements of the project approach). This, in turn, necessitated the development of recommendations for practical use assessment methods. Some of the methods for evaluating projects in the field of economics are still used today in developed countries(particularly in the European Union). This is evidenced by the report of D. Gavrilov on the "input-output" model (in English input-output), which was previously called "Russian

g intersectoral model "(in English Russian Interindustry Model), and it was introduced by ^ V. Leontiev in 1932 under the name "intersectoral model".

In the 1920s, our state was aimed at solving not only economic problems. In particular, the eradication of illiteracy can be regarded as one of the most ambitious megaprojects implemented in the social sphere. Of course, all major undertakings in the economic and social spheres were not accompanied by planning and evaluation. In view of the foregoing, it follows< метить, что 1920-е - середина 1930-х годов в нашей стране является периодом m становления оценки проектов. В этот период в нашей стране происходит выработка методов оценки, внедрение их в практику, в связи с чем появилось и первое их теоретическое осмысление.

The mid-1930s - mid-1950s is a period of bureaucratization and emasculation of evaluation in our country. During this period, the assessment turns into a tool for non-critical confirmation of the correctness of plans and initiatives directed from above (when they are correct, when they are not).

Mid 1950s - mid 1970s - period of revitalization theoretical research in the field of evaluation, development of new methods and tools for evaluation and attempts to put them into practice.

Over time, planning gradually began to lose the idea originally embodied in it, and if in State Committee planners may have taken planning seriously, local authorities sometimes tried to overestimate the plan, but more often to underestimate it, moreover, “backdating”. Under such conditions, valuation activity, of course, could not develop as an instrument of social and economic policy. Therefore, from the mid-1970s until the beginning of the 1990s, in our country, according to the authors, the period of assessment decline continued.

In the early 1990s, it was decided to abandon planning altogether, as it did not meet the needs and realities market economy institute. But at the same time, no one in our country bothered to train specialists and publish teaching aids and monographs on the evaluation of social projects in a market economy. As a result of all this, by the mid-1990s, valuation activities, which both public administration and economic development needed, and non-commercial activity- in order to be effective at the modern level - was actually abandoned. The beginning - the middle of the 1990s in our country - the period of forgetting the evaluation of projects in public consciousness. During this period, domestic specialists in the field of project evaluation either switched to other types of activities, or went abroad, where specialists in the field of applied mathematics, programmers, system administrators were especially in great demand. computer networks and others. And these were specialists who could contribute to the development latest methods evaluation of projects in our country.

The mid-1990s - early 2000s is the period of introduction of Western approaches to the evaluation of projects implemented by Russian non-profit organizations. Foreign grant givers were interested in the introduction of Western approaches to project evaluation, since this made it possible to determine the effectiveness of projects, and also increased the project culture of Russian non-profit organizations which created the conditions for a more competent, more efficient subsequent implementation of projects funded by foreign sponsors. For our country, such a “rehabilitation” of project evaluation was of great importance, since an understanding of the importance and practical value of such evaluation was restored in the public mind. At the same time, there was no “memories” about the domestic experience of assessment and evaluation.

It should be noted that at present, all countries, including Russia, are characterized by the beginning of the fifth wave of project management implementation, which produces automation of project management processes. This period is also

characterized by the creation of a kind of institutional matrix for both the initiation and development of projects. ^

The first to feel the need to master appraisal activities were activists of non-governmental non-profit organizations who received grants from international and Western organizations that were ready to provide funding only for “real” projects, which, of course, required the development of a project approach, which also involves an appropriate evaluation of projects1. í It should be noted that on the global platform for the development of project management< созданы ряд ассоциаций сертифицирования компетенций внедрения проектного m управления (компания IPMA - англ. International Project Management Association), в России они представлены Ассоциацией управления проектами «Совнет»2. Однако пока развитие оценочной деятельности в социальном проектировании в России происходит весьма медленно.

Among the problems of implementing project management both in public authorities and in organizations of social and cultural activities, one can name not only the lack of a flexible management system, low motivation of employees, but also the lack of an institutional matrix that allows unifying the project management system. Therefore, in order to avoid certain problems, mitigate risks and most effectively and painlessly introduce new management technologies, ensure synchronization of various coordination tools and harmonization of legal regulation, it is necessary to implement a set of works, including:

Development of a project management model that takes into account the unique features of an authority, a constituent entity of the Russian Federation / municipality, including established management traditions and experience in program-targeted budgeting;

Formation of a package of legal acts and methodological documents necessary for the smooth functioning of the project management system;

Creation of conditions for stimulating the implementation of project management in state authorities of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation and municipalities by introducing a rating system and encouraging authorities, municipalities;

Carrying out work aimed at ensuring the relationship of project activities in public authorities of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation with the priorities, goals and objectives of the socio-economic development of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation, reflected in the documents strategic planning;

Consulting and methodological support for the implementation of projects and training of customer representatives in basic knowledge in the field of project management.

Literature

1. Avtonomov A. S., Khananashvili N. L. Evaluation of social projects: tutorial I under total ed. A. S. Avtonomova. M. : Publishing group "Jurist", 2014.

1 Brochures and books have been published from time to time on project appraisal and specific methods of appraisal activity, or on the project approach, but with some information about appraisal activity. At the National research university - high school in Economics (NRU HSE), colloquiums are periodically held to evaluate programs and policies (after which collections of materials are published, albeit in a limited edition). Since 2004, the Institute for Program and Policy Evaluation has been operating under the leadership of D. B. Tsygankov.

2 International Project Management Association (Switzerland) (English International Project Management Association, IPMA) - an association established in 1965 and designed to unite specialists in the field of project management (Project Management), as well as introducing its own four-stage certification system.

< 2. Балашов А. Н., Мироненко Н. В., Холодов В. А., Борисов А. С. Нормативно-правовое регули-х рование внедрения проектного управления в сфере государственного управления: регио-

^ Nanal aspect // Central Russian Bulletin of Social Sciences. 2016. V. 11. No. 4. S. 117-126.

m 3. Gavrilov D. Report // Colloquium "Evaluation of programs and policies: methodology and application": collection of materials / ed. D. B. Tsygankova. M., 2006.

th 4. De Marco T. Deadline. A novel about project management. M. : Vershina, 2006. s 5. Zonov V.L. Features of the implementation of project management regional development in executive authorities // Economics of the New Time: Theoretical Aspects and Practice

o tic implementation. Collection of articles and abstracts of reports of the XIX All-Russian Scientific and Practical

tic conference. Chelyabinsk: Photoartist, 2015, pp. 99-106. m 6. Fomin S. G. Risks of using a hierarchical structure of work in project activities // Management economic systems: electronic scientific journal. 2015. No. 11 (83). S. 50.

7. Tsygankov D., Smirnova M. The fourth generation of evaluation methods // Colloquium "Evaluation of programs and policies: methodology and application": a collection of materials. Issue. I / ed. D. B. Tsygankova. M., 2007.

10. Shadish W. R., Cook Th. D., Leviton L. C. Foundations of Program Evaluation: Theories of Practice. SAGE, 1995.

11. Wollmann H. Evaluation in Public Sector Reform, Concepts and Practice in International Perspective. Cheltenham/Northampton: Edward Elgar, 2003.

1. Avtonomov A. S., Hananashvili N. L. Assessment of social projects: manual / under a general ed. of A.S. Avtonomov. M. : Publishing group Lawyer , 2014. (rus)

2. Balashov A. N., Mironenko N. V., Holodov V. A., Borisov A. S. Standard and legal regulation of introduction of project management in the sphere of public administration: regional aspect // Central Russian Journal Of Social Sciences . 2016. V. 11. N 4. P. 117-126. (rus)

3. Gavrilov D. Report // Colloquium "Estimation of programs and policies: methodology and application": collection of materials / under the ed. of D. B. Tsygankov. M., 2006. (rus)

4. DeMarko T. Deadline. The novel about project management. M. : Vershina, 2006. (rus)

5. Zonov V. L. Features of introduction of project management by regional development in executive authorities // Economy of modern times: theoretical aspects and practical implementation. Collection of articles and theses of reports of the XIX Russian scientific and practical conference. Chelyabinsk: Photo artist, 2015. P. 99-106. (rus)

6. Fomin S. G. Risks of use of hierarchical structure of works in design activity // Management of economic systems: online scientific journal . 2015. No. 11 (83). P. 50. (rus)

7. Tsygankov D., Smirnova M. Fourth generation of methods of estimation // Colloquium "Estimation of programs and policies: methodology and application": collection of materials. Issue I / under the ed. of D. B. Tsygankov. M. : 2007. (rus)

8. Evaluation for the 21st Century: A Handbook. Ed. by E. Chelimsky, W. R. Shadish. Sage Publications, 1997.

9. Rossi P. H., Lipsey M. W., Freeman H. E. Evaluation: A Systematic Approach. SAGE, 2004.

10. Shadish W. R., Cook Th. D., Leviton L. C. Foundations of Program Evaluation: Theories of Practice. SAGE, 1995.

11. Wollmann, H. Evaluation in Public-Sector Reform, Concepts and Practice in International Perspective. Cheltenham/Northampton: Edward Elgar, 2003.

Foreign experience of social design

(on the example of the experience of Germany)

Analysis of scientific literature [Lukov V.A., 2003], as well as personal experience of visiting and practical work in social institutions in Berlin, Chemnitz, Freiberg, Cologne allow us to identify current trends in the development of social design abroad:

attaching importance to design technology in the development of even a small (mundane) social idea;

179approval of the micro-approach to design social ideas, expressed in the wide distribution of medium-scale (affecting certain territories or settlements), and especially small-scale (focused on only a few people), social projects.

The reasons for the development of these trends are as follows.

Many large-scale social problems in the developed countries have already been solved, while the solution of others is impossible without shaking the foundations of society.

181 The effectiveness of the micro-approach to the design of social ideas has practical confirmation:

182 small-scale projects are more realistic and can be better provided with human, financial and material resources;

With the help of micro-projects, it is possible to more quickly respond to urgent social needs;

184 small-scale projects are more holistic, concrete, their advantage is the visibility of results;

185they are characterized by stability and flexibility organizational structure;

186Really reduce the risk inherent in innovative developments;

187 micro-projects involve close contact between a social worker and clients.

A significant number of social projects in Germany are a manifestation of the initiative of non-governmental (public, charitable, religious) organizations, the so-called “free carriers” (“Freie Träger”). This practice is based on the well-known principle of subsidiarity, according to which the state, not meeting the differentiated needs modern society, transfers priority when solving social problems public structures that have preference in financing civil initiatives in the social sphere compared to state ones. In the absence of free initiators in the public sector, the implementation of social projects is transferred to state institutions.

The social activity of the non-state sector contributes to:

solving many problems through economical financing, since free carriers provide social services much cheaper than state structures;

189reduction of unemployment among project initiators. So many socially significant projects that have received temporary funding and have proven their viability and effectiveness can be put on public funding, which provides permanent work for the project team;

190experimental work in the social sphere by non-governmental organizations entrusted with approbation of absolutely innovative projects;

the development of alternative public concepts, alternative forms of work with clients, individually oriented and more trustworthy among the population;

192 self-realization of the initiators of social ideas, on the one hand, and the manifestation of their social energy in forms approved by law, on the other.

193 meeting the various needs of people for services, the ability to choose from a variety of existing institutions in the market social services the most suitable, credible.

The real opportunity to receive funding for the non-implementation of a social project leads to the fact that civil initiatives compete with each other and with the project ideas of state institutions. For this reason, government departments social sphere hold competitions for programs and projects and finance the most promising of them.

As an example of a popular project idea in the youth field, which is actively developing abroad, as well as being the subject of translation into youth work in Russia and adaptation to Russian conditions, serves street social work. It represents a problem-oriented, mobile working approach to professional social work. This offer is for children, teenagers and young people who are organized into subcultural groups outside of organized youth work. The purpose of street social work is to provide a general limiting effect on the excesses in the relevant subculture that are dangerous for young people, without depriving young people of their subcultural identity through forced adaptation.

Street work includes preventive measures: monitoring the emergence of negative factors in the youth subculture (drugs, violence, aggressive ideologies), as well as direct contact with young people in their meeting places, various forms of group work and individual assistance.

Project activities in the field of social work with the elderly abroad

We had the opportunity to study the experience of working with the elderly in various social institutions in Germany (in Berlin and Cologne). At the end of the XX century. every fifth a resident of Germany was over the age of sixty, by 2010, according to the forecasts of German researchers, everyone will be at that age fourth German, and by 2040 every third(Prof. H. Bechtler). The following qualitative characteristics of the structure of old age in Germany can be named.

1.Rejuvenation of old age: earlier onset of the familial stage life cycle- “empty nest”, as children leave the family early; perception in professional field 45-year-old workers as “old”, “elderly”, and therefore not promising, etc.

2.B Early departure from the professional sphere. Number of participants in professional activity people over fifty-five years of age is constantly decreasing. On average, in Germany, leaving the profession occurs before the age of sixty. After sixty-five years, only 1% of people are engaged in professional activities.

3.F eminization of old age. Women, as a rule, worked less and had lower qualifications than men, so there are more women who are poor in old age. There are also specific problems in older women associated with the impossibility or limitation of the implementation of the "natural", "natural" function of a woman - to take care of someone.

4.Loneliness of old age. The proportion of single elderly people increases with age, and women predominate among them. In this regard, the potential need for this group of clients for outside support and assistance is predicted.

5.Growth in the number of elderly people (over eighty years). Usually these are single women who are not capable of self-service, in need of constant treatment and outside care. Thus, quantitative and qualitative socio-demographic changes require the development of the necessary infrastructure of social work, the development of new modern forms and methods of supporting the elderly.

Due to the obvious heterogeneity of the structure of old age social workers take into account the needs and interests, life situations and specific problems of both the “young” older people and the “very old”. Offers and services of social work for the first group of clients are much more diverse. The main ideas underlying the organization of social work with the elderly in Germany:

An elderly person is a bearer of universal human values, professional knowledge and skills, life experience, special worldly wisdom, which he could pass on to other people, to other generations.

At pre-retirement age, a person does not have time to realize himself at all five levels of needs according to A. Maslow, far from everyone reaches the level of self-actualization in the desired areas. There remains ample opportunity for human development in subsequent age stages. Therefore, many older people strive to acquire new knowledge and skills, to fulfill long-standing aspirations and desires, the fulfillment of which was hindered by professional and family obligations, life circumstances, etc.

196Reliance on the self-organization of the elderly. Creation and support of already functioning self-help groups, communication groups.

197Engagement of the elderly in all possible labor activity in personal or public interests, the development of charitable, volunteer activities of the elderly in various fields.

198Using the principle of activation (gaining control over the circumstances of one's life) as a basic one in working with older people, turning a person from an object (client) of social work into its subject.

Such ideas underlie a number of social projects that have been carried out in Berlin for a long time, confirming their relevance and relevance among the elderly.

Project “Active Evening of Life” unites people who, before retirement, were professionally employed in various craft, technical, commercial fields, and management structures. They are offered opportunities for useful work in order to maintain their health and activity: light clerical work; security service in museums; visiting lonely and sick elderly people, communicating with them, reading, accompanying them on walks, etc. Project participants receive a small remuneration for their work.

Project “Cafeteria in Nursing Homes” is carried out by a group of elderly people who lead an active and independent lifestyle and are happy to communicate with other elderly people who do not have such opportunities. By agreement with the management of many city nursing homes, they opened cafeterias in them, they bake pies with pleasure for the holidays, decorate the cafe premises, create an atmosphere of joy and mutual understanding. Residents of nursing homes are given the opportunity, through cafeterias, to influence certain isolations in their homes and maintain contact with the outside world.

Project “Cafe “Story” is dedicated to the restoration and preservation of the history subjectively experienced by the elderly. They orally pass on their memories to the youth. The project participants periodically gather in a special room, which in itself is of historical value. At the center of conversations is always a certain topic, reflecting important historical events for Berliners and illuminated from the point of view of those who were directly affected by these events. An important aspect of these stories is documentary authenticity and attachment to the place of action. Each story is recorded, processed and archived.

Social project “Knowledge Exchange” promotes the transfer of knowledge and experience in various fields of science, technology, everyday life to people of all ages through the establishment of personal contacts through the mediation of the exchange employees. Periodically, an exchange list is published with current offers and demand registered on the exchange. According to the number of each publication, those who wish to gain new knowledge and pass on their own in conversations establish a personal contact.

Social projects for the elderly and for the elderly are carried out in Germany on the basis of stationary social institutions, numerous activity centers for the elderly, museums and cafes, public organizations and self-help groups.

Foreign experience of project activities in the field of social work with the elderly may be of great interest to practitioners working with this category of clients in the Volgograd region.