Industry and Energy in India

India is a developing agro-industrial country with huge resources and human potential. Along with the industries traditional for India (agriculture, light industry), the extractive and manufacturing industries are developing.

At present, 29% of GDP falls on industry, 32% - on agriculture, 30% - on the service sector.

Energy. The creation of an energy base in the country began with the creation of hydroelectric power plants, but among the newly built power plants in recent years, thermal power plants predominate. The main source of energy is coal. India is also developing nuclear power- 3 nuclear power plants are operating. The total capacity of India's power plants is 94 thousand MW (1999).

Electricity generation per capita is still very low.

Ferrous metallurgy. This is a growing industry. The current level is 23 million tons of steel (1998). The industry is represented by enterprises located mainly in the east of the country (Kolkata-Damodar industrial belt), as well as in the states of Bihar, Adhra Pradesh, etc.

Non-ferrous metallurgy is also developed in the east. The aluminum industry, based on local bauxites, stands out.

Engineering. India produces a variety of machine tool and transport engineering products (TVs, ships, cars, tractors, airplanes and helicopters). The industry is developing rapidly.

The leading centers of mechanical engineering are Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Hyderabad, Bangalore.

In terms of production of the radio-electronic industry, India has taken second place in overseas Asia. The country produces a variety of radio equipment, color televisions, tape recorders, and communications equipment.

Chemical industry. In a country with such a role of agriculture, the production of mineral fertilizers is of exceptional importance. The importance of petrochemistry is also growing.

Light industry is a traditional sector of the economy, the main areas are cotton and jute, as well as clothing. Textile factories available in all major cities countries. In India's exports, 25% are products of the textile and clothing industry.

The food industry is also traditional, producing products for domestic and foreign market. The most widely known in the world is Indian tea.

Agriculture in India
The agro-industrial complex accounts for about 22% of India's GDP and 10% of India's exports, while providing employment for 60-65% of its population.
60% of agricultural products are produced by 25% of farms. The bulk of peasant farms are represented by tenants of small plots of land, who use traditional farming methods, not being able to purchase modern agricultural machinery and technologies in order to increase the volume of marketable products.
The main segments of the Indian agricultural sector are meat and dairy farming, poultry farming, the cultivation of fruits and vegetables, cereals (rice, wheat, cereals, beans), oil seeds, spices, tea and tobacco leaves, coffee beans, various varieties of nuts (hazelnuts, peanuts, almonds, cashew), sugar cane, seafood production, fishing, horticulture, natural rubber production, sericulture.
India ranks first in the world in terms of livestock of large cattle(57% of the world's buffalo population and 16% of cows), 2nd - goats and 3rd - sheep. In 2004/05 fin. In 2009, milk production increased to 90.7 million tons, poultry meat - 2.1 million tons, eggs - 45.2 billion pieces. In connection with the possible threat of bird flu, the government of the country has taken a number of protective measures: the import of poultry meat and related products from potentially dangerous countries has been banned, quarantine measures at customs have been strengthened, a strategic stock of vaccine has been prepared, etc.
India ranks 3rd in the world in marine fish production and 2nd in river fish (6.3 million tons in 2004/05). The country is the largest producer and exporter of tea (27% of world production, 13% of world trade). In 2004/05, Indian tea exports accounted for about 25% of domestic production. India's share in world coffee production is 4% (Robusta and Arabica varieties). India is also one of the largest producers of natural rubber (total sown area - 5.7 million hectares in 16 states).
The further development of agriculture is significantly constrained by the weakness of infrastructure, especially the lack of modern means of delivery, processing and storage. The loss of vegetables and fruits is 40%, and of all agricultural products - about 20%.

Foreign economic relations of India.

India, one of the oldest countries in the world, for almost 200 years was under the rule of the British colonialists. In 1947, India achieved independence, having received the status of a dominion, and in 1950 it was proclaimed a republic.

The policy of India, one of the states that has gone most far along the capitalist path of development, freed from colonial oppression, in foreign economic, as well as in domestic economic issues, is aimed at overcoming the economic backwardness of the country. It sets as its primary task the accelerated development of the national productive forces. The Indian government takes an active part in solving this problem, using the levers of indirect regulation of the national economy and directly participating in the reproduction process through the mechanism of the public sector.

In order to make better use of internal resources and funds attracted from abroad, as well as the overall coordination of the activities of the public and private sectors of the national economy and overcome dependence on imperialism, the state began to actively apply in its economic policy methods of programming and planning.

The importance of foreign economic relations for the economic development of India is determined by the need to attract additional material and financial resources to the country, as well as to sell part of the products on the world market. It increases many times in the era of the scientific and technological revolution, because foreign economic relations are becoming one of the most important channels through which the import of scientific and technological achievements from industrialized countries is carried out.

Overcoming the overt and covert action of imperialism, India is fighting for the effective use of its foreign economic relations, the most important elements of which are foreign trade, obtaining foreign technical assistance on an intergovernmental basis, and investment of foreign private capital. Each of the components of India's foreign economic relations has played and continues to play an important role in its economic policy, but their relative importance changes as the national economy strengthens.

By the beginning of the 1970s, the state sector of the economy became an important factor in the life of the country, there was a certain restriction on the activities of foreign capital, the economic ties with the countries of Eastern Europe. These changes had a serious impact both on the internal economic situation of the country and on the nature of its relations with the outside world, in particular, a greater balance was achieved in the scale and intensity of economic ties with the capitalist countries and the countries of Eastern Europe and the USSR.

Accordingly, all elements of India's foreign economic relations underwent qualitative changes. First of all, this led to a reduction in the size and, most importantly, a deterioration in the conditions for attracting foreign private investment to the country. At the same time, India's relations with foreign private capital remain extremely close, which is achieved by granting incentives to foreign companies that undertake to import new technology into the country, develop its export or energy production.

India favors foreign technical, financial and economic assistance provided on an intergovernmental basis. It should be noted the role of state aid from the countries of Eastern Europe and the USSR, and now the CIS and, first of all, Russia, which contributed significant contribution in the development of the Indian economy, in the creation of many of its industries. The construction with their assistance of machine-building, chemical, metallurgical enterprises, nuclear power plants, educational and scientific centers strengthened, and in a number of cases laid almost from scratch, the basis of the country's scientific and technological progress.

At present, due to the fundamental changes that have taken place in the economy and politics of the countries of the former socialist camp, the flow of aid from the countries of Eastern Europe has decreased and India has to reorient its economic ties anew, strengthening foreign economic relations with developed capitalist, as well as with developing countries. The problems of strengthening its own production base and some economic difficulties, in particular in the sphere of the balance of payments, are prompting India to strengthen the role of foreign trade relations in solving national problems of economic development.

The use of foreign economic relations by India is carried out, first of all, with the aim of eliminating economic dependence on imperialism and strengthening the economic independence of the country. It should be noted that the Indian bourgeoisie and, first of all, its monopoly circles, seek to subordinate foreign economic relations to the interests of maximizing their profits.

This direction in the development of India's foreign economic strategy is reflected in the course towards the accelerated development of trade with developing countries. The countries of the Afro-Asian region have become one of the main markets for the products of new branches of the Indian manufacturing industry and at the same time an important supplier of agricultural products and raw materials and, most importantly, minerals and oil for the needs of Indian industry. The development of this market is carried out in India by the joint efforts of the public and private sectors, and along with the exchange of goods great importance acquires the export of public and private capital.

The unevenness of capitalist development has led to a situation in which India, while continuing to lag behind the developed capitalist states, is at the same time significantly ahead of most developing countries. This also leaves an imprint on India's foreign economic policy, according to which the developed capitalist countries, the CIS countries and Russia remain India's main foreign trade partners.

Culture of India.

The culture of India has been made up of different eras of history, customs, traditions and ideas, both invaders and immigrants. Many cultural practices, languages ​​and monuments have been cited as examples of this intermingling over the centuries.

There is cultural and religious diversity in contemporary India. Much depends on the region of India. The South, North, and Northeast have their own distinctive features, and virtually every state has carved out its own cultural niche. Despite this unique cultural diversity, the entire country is united as a civilization due to its shared history, thus maintaining a national identity.

India is the birthplace of religious systems such as Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism, which have a major impact not only in India but throughout the world. After the Islamic invasion and subsequent foreign domination from the tenth century, the culture of India was heavily influenced by Persian, Arabic and Turkic cultures. In turn, the various religions and traditions of India have influenced Southeast Asia and other parts of the world. Mark Twain wrote:

“India is the cradle of the human race, the cradle of human speech, the mother of history, the grandmother of legend, and the great-grandmother of tradition. Our most valuable and most important of the materials in the history of mankind are stored only in India!”

Conclusion.

India is one of the oldest civilizations in the world. Until the middle of the III millennium BC. The Dravidian civilization developed in India. In the period from 2500 to 1500 BC. India was conquered by the Indo-Aryan tribes. From the 8th century, Islam began to penetrate into India. Muslim rule continued until 1398, when the armies of Tamerlane came to the country. In 1526, Babur, a descendant of Tamerlane, conquered almost all of India and founded the Mughal Empire, which lasted until 1857. Full political leadership passed to Great Britain in 1828-1835, and in 1857 India became a de facto protectorate of Great Britain. August 15, 1947

India gained independence, but was divided into two parts of the country India and Pakistan. January 26, 1950 India was proclaimed a democratic republic. State structure - federal Republic. Indians proudly call themselves "the biggest democracy in the world." The head of state is the president, who performs mainly representative functions. There are 6 national parties in the republic, 37 state parties, and in total more than 300 are registered. The government is headed by the prime minister.

In this paper, in conclusion, we can briefly summarize here are some figures and facts:

The national animal is the tiger.

The national bird is the peacock.

The national flower is the lotus.

The national fruit is mango.

Area: 3,287,000 sq. km.

The population is over 1.2 billion people.

National currency - Indian rupee

Phone code: 91

Local time - 2.30 ahead of Moscow (in summer at 1.30)

The highest point above sea level is Chogori in the North (on the border with China) (8611 m).

We examined many of India's problems and tried to find ways to solve them. It turned out that India occupies an advantageous economic and geographical position. This country is the birthplace of one of the oldest civilizations on the planet. The EGP of India hinders the development of the economy. The mineral resources of this country are diverse and their reserves are significant. We also looked at the problems of the population, because India today is home to more than 1 billion people.

And Indonesia. In the West India borders with Pakistan. India washed by the Indian ... in the history of the country. Page 8 Population India Population India incredibly varied. There are hundreds of...

Foreign trade is of considerable importance for the country's economy. However, India is still weakly involved in international division labor. Foreign trade turnover - 104 billion dollars, 2001 (export - 43 billion dollars; import - 61 billion dollars).

The country exports ready-made fabrics garments, jewelry and precious stones, agricultural and foodstuffs, machinery, as well as ore minerals, medicines and other goods. India accounts for 21% of world tea exports.

India exports iron ore mainly to Japan, but also to some European countries.

In the commodity structure of imports, the share of fuel resources, machinery, equipment, weapons, and lubricating oils is large.

The largest trading partners of India are the USA (19.3% of exports and 9.5% of imports) Germany, Japan, Great Britain. Despite the creation of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in 1985, the scale foreign trade with the nearest neighbors-members of this bloc (Pakistan, Bangladesh, etc.) are small. India's trade relations with the countries of Southeast Asia are expanding.

India is a member of such organizations as:

AFBR - African Development Bank;

AZBR - Asian Development Bank;

TKK - Commodity Credit Corporation;

WHO - World Health Organization;

WTO - World Trade Organization, etc.

Since the early 1990s, an extensive program of new economic reforms has been carried out in the country, the purpose of which is to create market economy V world economy. The government has liberalized the laws governing the flow of foreign investment into the country. The largest investors are the USA, Japan, Germany and other developed countries.

An important channel for the penetration of foreign capital into India are government loans, loans and subsidies provided by economic developed countries and the world's largest banks. India's external financial debt exceeds $100 billion (out of the group of developing countries, only Brazil and Mexico have a large external debt).

India's foreign economic relations with Russia have changed in recent years. Previously, the country was one of the main trading partners of the USSR (due to the sale of tea, coffee, pepper, spices, fabrics, medicines). In recent years, the trade turnover between the countries has noticeably decreased (from $3.7 billion in 1988 to $1.8 billion in 2001). a number of measures are currently being taken to develop new conditions for Russian-Indian trade and economic cooperation. India continues to be a promising and capacious market for Russia.

Conclusion

Country with ancient culture, a history full of drama and heroism, rich in the traditions of the struggle for national liberation - India today looks confidently into the future.

IN international affairs India conducts an independent course. Having gone through all the hardships of almost two hundred years of domination by foreign colonialists, it stands on the side of those whose freedom and independence have been and are being trampled on. India in to no small extent promoted national liberation movements in the former colonies, strongly condemns racism and apartheid in South Africa, advocates a just settlement in the Middle East.

Indian culture is traditionally characterized by high ideals of peacefulness and humanism. It was in India that the idea of ​​non-alignment was born. Non-alignment in the understanding of India is not self-isolation or "sitting between two chairs", but active, constructive participation in the reorganization of the world on fair and democratic principles.

India is the author of a number of major initiatives aimed at solving key international problems - eliminating the threat of war, ending the arms race, primarily nuclear, and establishing the principle of peaceful coexistence as an immutable law of interstate communication.

India seeks to develop good bilateral relations with all countries, primarily with its neighbors. "Peace", "friendship", "cooperation" - these words reflect the goals that Delhi sets in the international arena. That is why India is so close and understandable to me.

International trade. The economic reforms that unfolded in the 1980s-1990s had a great influence on the development of foreign economic relations in general and foreign trade in particular. The changes relate to the regulation of foreign economic relations, the growth of both exports and imports, in part, and the structure of exports of goods and services. According to the IMF, in 2006 India's share in world exports was 1.3%, which is much inferior to the share of China and comparable to Brazil's share. According to the WTO, India ranks 28th in terms of exports in the world, and 17th in terms of imports (Table 18.2).

Table 18.2. Dynamics of India's foreign trade in 2000-2007 (billion dollars, in current prices)

The export quota, calculated as the ratio of the volume of exports as a percentage of the country's GDP, was 12% in 2000, and by 2006 it had increased to 15%. In terms of the export quota, India is significantly inferior to the newly industrialized countries of Asia and Mexico with their export-oriented economies, but is quite comparable to China and Russia. Most industries and the main branches of agriculture work primarily to meet the needs of the Indian domestic market.

From the data in Table. 18.2 it is obvious that India is characterized, firstly, by the constant predominance of imports over exports, which reflects the relative poverty of the country's natural resource potential, especially the lack of hydrocarbons. Therefore, the negative balance of foreign trade increases during periods of rising oil prices.

Secondly, the data in the table show a rather rapid increase in exports, especially since 2003, which reflects the high rates of development of the economy as a whole and changes in the structure of exported goods. The decline in foreign trade volumes is explained by the impact of the global crisis.

In the first decades of India's existence as an independent state, foreign trade played a large role in providing the basis of state sovereignty. Foreign trade policy was aimed at industrialization, the creation of basic industries and the development of productive forces in agriculture. The state encouraged import substitution, currency savings, provided protection from competition from foreign goods. The state tightly controlled the foreign trade operations of private firms through a system of licensing, currency restrictions and protectionist import duties, as well as a fixed exchange rate of the national currency - the rupee.

This system was maintained until the early 1990s, when the liberalization of foreign trade became integral part general economic reforms.

The main goals of foreign trade policy were the country's transition to a globally oriented economy in order to extract the maximum benefit from the opportunities of the world market, including technological re-equipment, increasing competitiveness and quality Indian goods up to the world level.

The new rules remove most quantitative restrictions, reduce the number of licenses, simplify bureaucratic formalities and procedures, and provide more freedom and support for the private sector. At the same time, the state seeks to promote the growth of exports and its diversification, expanding the market for Indian goods. Special state councils promotion of exports by groups of goods. At the same time, Indian producers of goods and services based on new technologies are supported. The support system, including in special economic zones, covers 5,000 types of marketable products. There are special committees that control the quality of traditional Indian exports produced on plantations and farms.

Agro-raw materials specialization in recent years has changed significantly. As in other developing countries, finished products are coming to the fore, while the share of agricultural products and minerals is declining. share finished products in exports exceeded 80%. Software ranked first in terms of value in the export of goods and services (an increase from 2000 to 2006 by almost 3 times). IN commodity export of finished products, the first places are occupied by jewelry made of precious and semi-precious stones, ready-made clothes, pharmaceutical products; specific gravity machinery and equipment, including electronics.

In Indian imports, oil and oil products rank first in terms of value, followed by rough precious stones (including small diamonds, referred to as "Indian goods"), machinery and equipment, electronic components, ferrous and non-ferrous metals, fertilizers, and paper.

The geography of India's foreign trade is quite extensive. According to the IMF, in 2005 developed countries accounted for 43% of India's exports and 33% of imports. India's largest counterparties in this group of countries are the US, Germany and the UK. A growing share in trade is occupied by oil-producing states, primarily the countries of the Persian Gulf. This is followed by China and the newly industrialized countries of Southeast Asia.

A very modest place in India's foreign trade is occupied by its closest neighbors - SAARC partners - Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka (in total 4.2% of exports and only 0.5% of imports). This is due to the uniformity of the export specialization of India and its neighbors, as well as the tension of political relations in certain periods.

Foreign investment. The liberalization of the economy and the removal of a number of restrictions that existed for foreign companies, and the expansion of the scope of the private sector, led to an increase in foreign investment coming to India.

If in 1990 foreign investments amounted to only 103 million dollars, then in 2006 India received direct investments in the amount of 16.4 billion dollars and portfolio investments in the amount of 9 billion dollars. The inflow of foreign capital has especially increased since 2003. accumulated foreign investment in 2006 is estimated at 243.7 billion dollars. The volume of cross-border money transfers is quite significant - 50 billion dollars in 2008, which exceeds the annual volume of foreign investment.

In 1991, the government established the Foreign Investment Promotion Bureau. It is the main body responsible for reviewing and approving foreign direct investment (FDI) projects. About 90% of investment flows are directed through the specified bureau.

The main areas of application of foreign capital are the service sector, the automotive industry, telecommunications, and the pharmaceutical industry.

Branches of the largest TNCs have been opened in the country - Bayer, Cadbury, Phillips, Siemens, Glaxo, Unilever, etc. In accordance with Indian legislation, TNCs operate autonomously from head offices and other branches and prefer to accept Indian names. Mixed enterprises with foreign capital are also being created, and it is allowed for foreigners to have a controlling stake. For example, Toyota, which has been operating in India since 1997, created the Toyota Kirloscar Motor company, which plans to produce up to 600,000 cars a year and win 10% automotive market countries by 2010

Indian firms have increased borrowing from abroad, which is carried out under the control of the Reserve Bank of India, which acts as a central bank. Thus, for the 2006/07 financial year, a limit was set for corporate borrowings abroad at $15 billion.

In recent years, Indian capital has been actively exported abroad, primarily to the USA, Great Britain and other EU countries, as well as to the developing countries of Asia and Brazil. Indian investments are invested mainly in the extraction of oil and other mineral raw materials, ferrous metallurgy, and the pharmaceutical industry. Since the removal in 2005 of government restrictions on the amount of purchases of foreign assets, Indian companies announced the acquisition of 480 companies. Indian corporations are allowed to invest abroad up to 300% of their equity, including placement in foreign securities up to 35% net profit. In particular, the state-owned oil and gas company ONGC made 17 acquisitions in 14 countries, investing $5.5 billion.

The country has completely abolished foreign exchange restrictions on current operations balance of payments, and entrepreneurs can freely exchange rupees for foreign currency for commercial purposes. However, capital balance restrictions remain and full convertibility of the Indian currency is under consideration.

Indian-Russian economic relations. According to Russian statistics In 2008, India's foreign trade turnover reached $6.7 billion. Such volumes of economic ties do not correspond to the potential of the rapidly growing economies of both countries. According to interstate agreements, a goal has been set to reach the level of $10 billion in the coming years.

Historical excursion. Modern economic ties between India and Russia are based on the traditions of Indian cooperation with the USSR in the 50-80s. the last century. During this period, economic relations between India and the USSR developed extremely actively and successfully. India was the largest partner of the USSR among developing countries, and for India Soviet Union was one of the main partners in creating the foundations of heavy industry, in the construction of ferrous metallurgy, heavy engineering, oil and gas industries, nuclear, thermal and hydropower. Trade turnover between the USSR and India peaked in 1990 ($5.5 billion).

The peculiarities of Indian trade with Russia are India's constant excess of imports over exports, a relatively narrow range of export and imported goods. Part of Indian goods comes to Russia as a repayment of the rupee debt formed in connection with investment loans in the 1960s-1980s. The value of this debt was $3 billion in 2006. Part of this debt is expected to be invested in investment projects on the territory of India.

The structure of Indian exports to Russia is as follows: pharmaceutical products are in the first place, followed by goods produced in the agricultural sector (coffee, including instant coffee, tea, tobacco, spices, etc.), machinery and equipment, light industry products.

Characteristically, tea exports to Russia have drastically decreased, which is associated with a decrease in quality control, falsification of Indian varieties and competition from cheaper tea from third countries.

In Indian imports from Russia leading place occupy machines, equipment and means of transport, ferrous metals, fertilizers, non-ferrous and precious metals and stones, paper. The group "machinery, equipment and means of transport" partially includes weapons and military equipment. Together with dual-use goods, weapons and military equipment make up 30-40% of Indian imports from Russia, and military-technical cooperation is an important area of ​​partnership between the two states. The Russian-Indian long-term program of military-technical cooperation includes almost 200 projects, the total cost of which is estimated at $18 billion. Russian weapons And military equipment India is second only to China.

Investment cooperation on both sides is carried out mainly public corporations. Russia is involved in the construction of a large nuclear power plant"Kudamkulam" and other energy facilities, in the supply of equipment and technical documentation for the licensed production of military aircraft, in geological exploration and other projects. On the Indian side, the already mentioned corporation "ONGC" has invested in Russian project"Sakhalin-1" 2.8 billion dollars, having received 20% of the shares of the international consortium. The first oil produced as part of this project has already arrived in India.

India belongs to the group of Asian countries with relatively high level transport development. The main role in domestic cargo and passenger transportation belongs to railway transport. India occupies one of the first places in the world in terms of length railways(63.5 thousand km, of which? narrow-gauge).

Railway transport is equipped with diesel locomotives and electric locomotives, but steam locomotives are also used. Second place in domestic freight and passenger traffic belongs to road transport.

Maritime transport serves both cabotage and external economic relations.
The airports of Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru are of international importance.
Rickshaws are traditional for India, especially in cities.

During the colonial period, India maintained ties only with the mother country - Great Britain. After gaining independence, it expanded the geography of these ties, establishing relations with both developed and developing countries. There have been significant changes in the structure of foreign trade. Both in imports and in exports, the share of manufacturing products increased due to a decrease in the share of raw materials and food products.

The policy of India, one of the states that has gone most far along the capitalist path of development liberated from colonial oppression, in foreign economic, as well as in domestic economic issues, is aimed at overcoming the economic backwardness of the country. It sets as its primary task the accelerated development of the national productive forces. The Indian government takes an active part in solving this problem, using the levers of indirect regulation of the national economy and directly participating in the reproduction process through the mechanism of the public sector.

In order to better use domestic resources and funds attracted from abroad, as well as to coordinate the activities of the public and private sectors of the national economy and overcome dependence on imperialism, the state began to actively apply programming and planning methods in its economic policy.

Foreign trade is of considerable importance for the country's economy. However, India is still weakly involved in the international market sharing. Foreign trade turnover 56.5 billion dollars, 1994 (export - 27.3; import - 29.2 billion dollars). The country exports fabrics, ready-made garments (29%), jewelry and precious stones (18%). agricultural and food products (16%). machines (7%), as well as ores, medicines and other goods. India accounts for 31% of world tea exports. In the commodity structure of imports, the share of fuel resources (17%), machinery and equipment (15%) is large.

The importance of foreign economic relations for the economic development of India is determined by the need to attract additional material and financial resources to the country, as well as to sell part of the products on the world market. It increases many times in the era of the scientific and technological revolution, because foreign economic relations are becoming one of the most important channels through which the import of scientific and technological achievements from industrialized countries is carried out.

By the beginning of the 1970s, the public sector of the economy had become an important factor in the life of the country, there was a certain restriction on the activities of foreign capital, and economic ties with the countries of Eastern Europe expanded and strengthened. These changes had a serious impact both on the internal economic situation of the country and on the nature of its relations with the outside world, in particular, a greater balance was achieved in the scale and intensity of economic ties with the capitalist countries and the countries of Eastern Europe and the USSR.

Accordingly, all elements of India's foreign economic relations underwent qualitative changes. First of all, this led to a reduction in the size and, most importantly, a deterioration in the conditions for attracting foreign private investment to the country. At the same time, India's relations with foreign private capital remain extremely close, which is achieved by granting incentives to foreign companies that undertake to import new technology into the country, develop its export or energy production.

The use of foreign economic relations by India is carried out, first of all, with the aim of eliminating economic dependence on imperialism and strengthening the economic independence of the country. It should be noted that the Indian bourgeoisie and, first of all, its monopoly circles, seek to subordinate foreign economic relations to the interests of maximizing their profits.

This direction in the development of India's foreign economic strategy is reflected in the course towards the accelerated development of trade with developing countries. The countries of the Afro-Asian region have become one of the main markets for the products of new branches of the Indian manufacturing industry and at the same time an important supplier of agricultural products and raw materials and, most importantly, minerals and oil for the needs of Indian industry. The development of this market is carried out in India by the joint efforts of the public and private sectors, and along with the exchange of goods, the export of public and private capital is of great importance.

The unevenness of capitalist development has led to a situation in which India, while continuing to lag behind the developed capitalist states, is at the same time significantly ahead of most developing countries. This also leaves an imprint on foreign economic policy India, according to which the developed capitalist countries, the CIS countries and Russia remain the main foreign trade partners of India.

In 1977, in order to strengthen the manufacturing base for exports, Indian firms were granted the right to import any goods necessary for the production of export products, in the amount of 25% of the value of their exports. Special incentives were granted to small and medium-sized exporters, in particular the allocation of import licenses for up to 50,000 rupees in hard currency. If an enterprise in the small industry sector exported more than 20% of its products, the size of these licenses was not limited.

The third category of government activities aimed at assisting private exporters includes the collection and processing of information on foreign markets, conducting advertising work, organization of exhibitions, etc. The role of the state in the development of India's exports is not limited to providing various incentives to private enterprises. The state also independently entered the world market, initially through a system of state foreign trade associations, the first of which was created in 1956. State Trading Corporation (G.T.K.).

The export activity of GTC is characterized by very high growth rates. Its dynamics is such that if in 1956 its exports amounted to about 90 million rupees, then 20 years later, in 1976, it reached 5590 million rupees, which was equal to 17% of the value of all national exports.

Many Indian state companies managed to enter the world market and subsequently expand its exports thanks to orders from Afro-Asian countries, which are major consumers of Indian engineering, metalworking, metallurgy and chemistry products, i.e. products of precisely those industries where state-owned industrial companies mainly operate.

The strengthening of the state's position in export operations due to the absolute and relative growth of exports of state-owned foreign trade corporations and industrial enterprises had a positive effect on increasing the efficiency of India's export programs as a whole.

State regulation of imports includes currency regulation, licensing, tariff policy, import quotas, direct state control for import individual goods etc. Each of these areas of regulatory activity of the state is of great importance, especially in the face of difficulties with trade and balance of payments. In connection with the latter circumstance, state foreign trade regulation is aimed primarily at ensuring savings in foreign currency. The state mainly achieves this goal by granting import privileges to exporters. In this case, import regulation is closely intertwined with export regulation.

Other measures of state import regulation, in particular, the issuance of licenses for the import of equipment, raw materials, components and spare parts to create additional export capacities, are designed to promote the economical use of foreign currency while simultaneously stimulating exports.

An equally important goal of state import regulation is the protection of national industry. It is here that protectionism acquires an anti-imperialist content and serves national interests. The implementation of the protection of the national economy occurs through the establishment of: - high customs duties; - import quotas; - a direct ban on the import of goods identical to those produced domestically.

The rather strong positions of the state in imports are determined by the large scale of the activities of state foreign trade organizations and by granting them the exclusive right to import certain goods. Foreign trade organizations are the main, but not the only state organizations involved in the implementation of import operations. A significant volume of imports of machinery and equipment is carried out by direct consumers of these goods from among the state industrial enterprises.

More than 3/4 of the export of Indian capital is accounted for by the two dozen most powerful national private and state capitals. According to all the main features, they should be classified as capitalist monopolies. They dominate the sphere of production and circulation within the country, they are the largest diversified associations with numerous firms and branches, banks, insurance companies and transport agencies, thousands of workers are employed in their enterprises. Among the largest Indian monopolies are "BIRLA", "TATA", "THAPAR", "SINGHANIA"; some of them are among the richest corporations in the world.

The export of capital from India is specific in its geography: it is focused mainly on the markets of developing countries in Asia, Africa and Oceania, which account for 95.7% of all foreign direct investment. Only a very small proportion are the industrialized countries of Europe, the USA, Canada and Australia. This distribution of exported capital is understandable; it rushes to where competition is weaker and its economic potential and industrial specialization are more likely to succeed. Indian capital is being introduced mainly into the metallurgical, textile, food, chemical, and paper industries, into the electric power industry, mechanical engineering, and civil engineering. He prefers to expand abroad those productions that have already been established "at home", having formed a fairly high technical, technological and managerial experience. Moreover, it is precisely in these areas that capital especially feels the limitations of the home market.

Case studies from foreign enterprises of Indian firms show that they no longer fit into the model of small-scale, low-productivity production. It is no coincidence that Indian investors in general have earned a reputation as technology leaders among newcomers. international business, leaders who are being introduced abroad in industries that produce means of production that require extremely complex technology, large-scale production, where it is always necessary to keep up with the times.

An important feature of the international activities of Indian monopolies is the predominant orientation of their foreign enterprises to the domestic markets of the host countries. For example, some Indian companies that have embarked on a course of active penetration into the world market and have achieved the necessary competitiveness are moving their production abroad, despite higher costs in the host countries, as this expands the boundaries of a narrow national market.

The Role of Foreign Private Capital in the Foreign Economic Relations of Modern India Questions of relations with foreign private capital are constantly at the center of attention of the Indian state in solving the main problems of national economic development.

In relation to foreign private capital, the defining direction in Indian policy, which reflects the position of all sections of the Indian population, with the exception of the monopoly elite of the bourgeoisie, is the course towards establishing effective control over the activities of foreign capital in order to reduce its influence in the Indian economy. The legislation limits the activities of foreign private investors to certain sectors of the economy, and limits the amount of profits that go abroad. However, this does not mean that the positions of foreign capital have been fundamentally undermined, and that its influence on India's economic development is insignificant. Suffice it to say that the volume of foreign private investment, despite all the restrictions, continues to increase, although the growth rates of foreign investment in certain periods are not the same. The reason lies in the fact that foreign companies are found in India very favorable conditions that provide a fairly high rate of return on operating capital. Thus, according to the American magazine "Business international" (1985), the average profit of American companies from Indian investments in the manufacturing industry increased from 15.8% (1982) to 20.3% (1984).

In an effort to attract foreign equipment and technology, the experience and financial resources of foreign firms, the state goes to provide firms with certain, sometimes significant benefits. The pressure of foreign capital causes a different reaction in the country, there are intra-national disputes and conflicts. The Indian government is also trying to attract capital from foreign companies on more favorable terms for the state, through the conclusion of agreements on financial and technical cooperation.

Growth rates at enterprises using foreign experience and technology through agreements systems are much higher than the national average. While noting certain benefits that India derives from such agreements, it should be noted that this form of relations with foreign capital is in some cases used by firms to obtain essentially unilateral benefits that have nothing to do with Indian national interests. Moreover, foreign companies introduce various kinds of prohibitive and restrictive articles into cooperation agreements, primarily related to the export of products of new enterprises. In a number of cases, despite the existing restrictions on areas of activity, foreign capital manages to achieve the conclusion of cooperation agreements in sectors that are not of paramount importance for the national economy, but bring good incomes (cosmetics, some branches of the food and light industries).

Geography of India's Foreign Economic Relations

India and the industrialized capitalist countries India's largest trade and economic partners are the developed capitalist countries, which account for about half of its foreign trade turnover. India's main partners are the US, Japan and the EEC countries.

Despite a significant diversification of foreign economic relations, India still sells a significant part of its traditional, and in recent years, new products in the markets of these countries. Incomes from the export of goods and services to the industrialized capitalist countries form the basis of India's foreign exchange earnings.

The developed capitalist countries are important suppliers to the Indian market of many machinery and equipment, foodstuffs and manufactured goods. The significance of this group of countries in India's foreign economic relations is also determined by the fact that they, as well as the international financial organizations IMF and IBRD, which are under their control, are its largest creditors. It is not superfluous to note that India has one of the highest levels of external debt among developing countries (829 billion rupees, 1989), which is a heavy burden on its economy.

At the same time, it should be emphasized that the strengthening of the national industrial base as a result of the industrialization of agricultural production, as well as the reorientation of India in the field of geography of foreign economic relations with an emphasis on developing countries and countries of Eastern Europe, allowed India to reduce dependence on developed capitalist states, whose share in India's imports fell. from 75% in the early 70s to 55% in 1989. For the same reasons, the share of capitalist countries in exports is also decreasing.

In an effort to overcome the negative trends in trade with the United States, Indian public and private foreign trade organizations carefully study the US market conditions and carry out fairly significant advertising of traditional and new Indian exports. At the same time, as the Indian magazine "Commerce" notes, trade between India and the United States "...continues to develop along the classical pattern of relations between a developed and a developing country."

At first glance, the relationship between India and the EEC countries in the field trade and economic relations are developing relatively successfully. This is evidenced by: -fast growth commodity exchange with the countries of the seven; - the conclusion of an agreement on trade cooperation - the first agreement of its kind between countries " common market"and a country not associated with it; - the temporary preservation by England after its entry into the EEC of the former customs preferences in relation to India; - the conclusion by India of an agreement with the EEC on coffee and jute.

Along with the development of exports to the developed capitalist countries, India is trying to ease the problem of trade imbalance with them by financing its imports from these countries by obtaining loans and benefits from them.

There is a liberalization of the terms of loans provided to India by a number of Western European states: Germany, England, Holland days. A distinctive feature of the 1980s is that a significant part of the soft loans granted to India by the developed capitalist countries comes to her from the Western European states. The latter use such loans as very effective remedy competition in the Indian market with US monopolies and managed to achieve a significant increase in their sales to India. For the period 1982-1989. imports to India of goods from EEC countries increased from 2.2 billion rupees, and their share in Indian imports increased from 13.3% to 29.2%. Trade with Japan also increased.

India and the developing countries, the Liberated States of Asia, Africa and Latin America occupy a prominent place in India's foreign economic relations. Moreover, for a number of goods, these states are the main suppliers to the Indian market (oil, cotton, copper), or represent the most important markets for Indian products ("engineering" goods, textiles).

Of course, the importance of individual countries, sub-regions and regions in Indian foreign trade is far from being the same. So Latin American countries occupy a very modest place, both in exports and in imports of the country. India's trade with developing African countries was also relatively small until the late 1960s. In subsequent years, India's trade with African states began to show a positive trend, and between 1966 and 1976, its trade with them doubled.

India's interest in obtaining oil underlies its actions to develop relations with the oil-producing African country - Algeria. In 1976, an agreement was concluded between India and Algeria under which, in exchange for Algerian oil and liquefied gas, India supplies jute, coffee, tobacco, spices and other goods.

It should be noted here that the need for oil forces Ying day to establish close relations with oil exporting countries, and first of all with Saudi Arabia, which accounts for 6.7% of Indian imports (1989). and Southeast Asia in the foreign economic relations of India is determined by their geographical proximity to India, as well as the history of the region.

According to their role in Indian foreign economic relations, these countries are divided into two groups. The first includes: Burma, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, which act mainly as a market for Indian products. Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore, Indonesia, Hong Kong and the Philippines are the second group of suppliers of technical and other products to the Ying days market.

Soviet-Indian Trade and Economic Relations The CIS countries, and in particular Russia, have remained one of India's main trading partners. The USSR accounted for 12.9% of Indian exports and 4.5% of imports in 1989. The CIS ranks second in India's foreign trade turnover. It is quite remarkable that in the period from 1976 to 1986 the volume of Soviet-Indian trade increased by 4.5 times. This indicator of foreign trade growth rates exceeded similar indicators of both the USSR and India. But now, due to the economic crisis in the CIS countries, it has become the third largest foreign trade partner India was second to Japan.

The CIS countries provide India with huge economic assistance.

The value of this support for the national Indian economy lies in the fact that they help develop the fundamental sectors of the economy: energy, complex engineering, the chemical industry, and oil refining. Over the years of cooperation, about 75 industrial facilities have been built in India and about 50 are currently under construction. In 1989, these enterprises accounted for 44% of all steel produced in the country, 38% of aluminum, 21% of oil production and 45% of oil refining, 77% of metallurgical, 47% of energy and 43% of mining equipment. Assistance from the CIS helps India to eliminate economic dependence on Western countries.

Despite the difficulties of perestroika, Russian-Indian relations continue to develop, and on a long-term basis, which gives them a certain stability. In recent years, the leaders of the two states have made visits during which important agreements were reached on the development of economic cooperation. Agreements were signed defining the prospects for trade and economic relations between the two states for the period up to 2000, an agreement on scientific and technical cooperation, a long-term program in the field of industrial cooperation.

Cooperation between the two countries, in which more than 1/5 of humanity lives, is a significant factor in international economic life and the prospects for its development are favorable. The CIS and India demonstrate the development of multilateral ties between states with still different socio-economic systems.

India and the countries of Eastern Europe An important role in solving the problems of India's economic development is played by its ties with the countries of Eastern Europe.

India's largest trading partner of these countries is Poland. The main Polish exports to India are mining equipment, ships and marine equipment, paints, etc.

Polish imports from India consist of traditional agricultural products (tea, coffee) and products of new Indian industries (electronic equipment, chemical products, steel pipes, etc. e) CSFR is India's largest partner in the field of economic cooperation among the Eastern European states. About 60 industrial enterprises have been built in India with the help of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, including a plant for heavy electrical equipment in Khairabad, a casting and forging plant in Rania, and machine-tool enterprises.