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Handicraft production in Rus'. Ancient crafts of Rus'

Ancient Rus' in the medieval world was widely famous for its craftsmen. At first, among the ancient Slavs, the craft was domestic in nature - everyone dressed skins for themselves, tanned leather, weaved linen, sculpted pottery, made weapons and tools. Then the artisans began to engage only in certain trades,ovil the products of their labor for the whole community, and the rest of its members provided them with products Agriculture, furs, fish, beast. And already in the period of the early Middle Ages, the production of products on the market began. At first it was custom-made, and then the goods began to go on free sale.

Talented and skilled metallurgists, blacksmiths, jewelers, potters, weavers, stone-cutters, shoemakers, tailors, representatives of dozens of other professions lived and worked in Russian cities and large villages. These simple people made an invaluable contribution to the creation of the economic power of Rus', its high material and spiritual culture.

The names of the ancient artisans, with few exceptions, are unknown to us. Objects preserved from those distant times speak for them.

Blacksmiths were the first ancient Russian professional artisans. The blacksmith in epics, legends and fairy tales is the personification of strength and courage, goodness and invincibility. Iron was then smelted from swamp ores. Ore was mined in autumn and spring. It was dried, fired and taken to metal-smelting workshops, where metal was obtained in special furnaces. During excavations of ancient Russian settlements, slags are often found - waste products of the metal-smelting process - and pieces of ferruginous bloom, which, after vigorous forging, became iron masses. The remains of blacksmith workshops were also found, where parts of forges were found. The burials of ancient blacksmiths are known, in which their tools of production - anvils, hammers, tongs, chisels - were placed in their graves.things in which talent and experience, skill and ingenuity are invested.

Old Russian blacksmiths supplied plowmen with coulters, sickles, scythes, and warriors with swords, spears, arrows, battle axes. Everything that was necessary for the economy - knives, needles, chisels, awls, staples, fish hooks, locks, keys and many other tools and household items - were made by talented craftsmen.

Old Russian blacksmiths achieved special art in the production of weapons. Items found in the burials of Chernaya Mohyla in Chernigov, necropolises in Kyiv and other cities are unique examples of ancient Russian crafts of the 10th century.

The blackening technique was rather complicated. First, a “black” mass was prepared from a mixture of silver, lead, copper, sulfur and other minerals. Then this composition was applied to bracelets, crosses, rings and other jewelry. Most often depicted griffins, lions, birds with human heads, various fantastic animals.

Graining required completely different methods of work: small silver grains, each of which was 5-6 times smaller than a pinhead, were soldered to the smooth surface of the product. What labor and patience, for example, was worth soldering 5,000 such grains on each of the kolts that were found during excavations in Kyiv! Most often, granulation is found on typical Russian jewelry - lunnitsa, which were pendants in the form of a crescent.

If instead of silver grains, patterns of the finest silver, gold wires or strips were soldered onto the product, then a filigree was obtained. From such threads-wires, sometimes an incredibly intricate pattern was created.

The technique of embossing on thin gold or silver sheets was also used. They were strongly pressed against a bronze matrix with the desired image, and it was transferred to a metal sheet. Embossing performed images of animals on kolts. Usually it is a lion or a leopard with a raised paw and a flower in its mouth. Cloisonne enamel became the pinnacle of ancient Russian jewelry craftsmanship.

The enamel mass was glass with lead and other additives. Enamels were of different colors, but red, blue and green were especially loved in Rus'. Enamel jewelry went through a difficult path before becoming the property of a medieval fashionista or a noble person. First, the entire pattern was applied to the future decoration. Then a thin sheet of gold was applied to it. Partitions were cut from gold, which were soldered to the base along the contours of the pattern, and the spaces between them were filled with molten enamel. The result was an amazing set of colors that played and shone under the sun's rays in different colors and shades. The centers for the production of jewelry from cloisonné enamel were Kyiv, Ryazan, Vladimir...

And in Staraya Ladoga, in the layer of the 8th century, an entire industrial complex was discovered during excavations! The ancient Ladoga residents built a pavement of stones - iron slags, blanks, production wastes, fragments of foundry molds were found on it. Scientists believe that a metal-smelting furnace once stood here. The richest treasure trove of handicraft tools, found here, is apparently associated with this workshop. The hoard contains twenty-six items. These are seven small and large pliers - they were used in jewelry and iron processing. For the manufacture of jewelry used a miniature anvil. An ancient locksmith actively used chisels - three of them were found here. Sheets of metal were cut with jewelry scissors. Drills made holes in the tree. Iron objects with holes were used to draw wire in the production of nails and rook rivets. Jewelry hammers, anvils for chasing and embossing ornaments on silver and bronze jewelry were also found. Also found here finished goods an ancient craftsman - a bronze ring with images of a human head and birds, rook rivets, nails, an arrow, knife blades.

Finds at the settlement of Novotroitsky, in Staraya Ladoga and other settlements excavated by archaeologists indicate that already in the 8th century the craft began to become an independent branch of production and was gradually separated from agriculture. This circumstance was of great importance in the process of the formation of classes and the creation of the state.

If for the 8th century we know so far only a few workshops, and in general the craft was of a domestic nature, then in the next, 9th century, their number increases significantly. Masters now produce products not only for themselves, their families, but for the entire community. Long-distance trade relations are gradually strengthening, various products are sold on the market in exchange for silver, furs, agricultural products and other goods.

In the ancient Russian settlements of the 9th-10th centuries, archaeologists have unearthed workshops for the production of pottery, foundry, jewelry, bone carving and others. Improvement of tools, invention new technology made it possible for individual members of the community to produce alone various things necessary for the household, in such quantities that they could be sold.

The development of agriculture and the separation of crafts from it, the weakening of tribal ties within communities, the growth of property inequality, and then the emergence of private property - the enrichment of some at the expense of others - all this formed new way production - feudal. Along with it, the early feudal state in Rus gradually arose.And.

Craft workshops produced tools (ploughshares, axes, chisels, pincers, etc.), weapons (shields, chain mail armor, spears, helmets, swords, etc.), household items (keys, etc.), jewelry - gold, silver, bronze, copper.

In ancient Russian cities, such types of crafts as pottery, leather, woodworking, stone carving, etc. were developed. Rus' gained fame in Europe at that time with its products. In the cities, artisans worked both to order and to the market. Academician Rybakov separates urban and rural handicraft production. In the cities, blacksmithing and plumbing and weaponry, processing of precious metals, foundry, forging and chasing, wire drawing, filigree and granulation, enamel, pottery, glass production, etc. were developed. blacksmith craft, jewelry, pottery, woodworking, leather and fur processing, weaving, etc.

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general characteristics

The first stage in the development of ancient Russian crafts lasted more than two centuries - until the 20-30s of the 12th century. It is characterized by perfect and high technology of handicraft production. The number of products was limited, they themselves were quite expensive. During this period, work to order was common, since the free market was still limited. At this time, the main types of handicraft equipment were created and new technological foundations for ancient Russian production were laid. Archaeological excavations allow us to conclude that the handicraft production of Ancient Rus' was on the same level as the artisans of Western Europe and the East.

At the second stage of development, which began at the end of the first third of the 12th century, there was a sharp expansion of the product range and a significant rationalization of production in the form of simplification technological operations. IN textile industry at the end of the 12th century, a horizontal loom appears. Productivity increases, the weaving system is simplified, and varietal types of fabrics are reduced. In metalworking, instead of high-quality multilayer steel blades, simplified and lower-quality blades with a welded edge appear. At this time, serial production also manifests itself. Product standards are being created, especially in metalworking, textile, woodworking, shoemaking, and jewelry crafts. During this period, a wide specialization of handicrafts within individual branches of production began. The number of specialties at the end of the 12th century in some ancient Russian cities exceeded 100. At the same time, there was a sharp development of small-scale production, the products of which were designed for sale not only in the city, but also in the villages.

crafts

Smelting and processing of iron and steel

By the time of the creation of the Old Russian state in Eastern Europe, the stationary ground shaft furnace with a slag removal device became the main type of iron-making furnaces. In Ancient Rus', metallurgy quite early separated from metalworking, that is, from blacksmithing. The production of iron in Rus' has always been carried out by metallurgists who lived in villages. Ore was mined in autumn and spring. The metallurgical objects of Ancient Rus', excavated in the course of archaeological work, are the ruins of adobe and stone furnaces, around which accumulations of raw materials are located. More than 80 such objects, which are entire complexes, are known. At the same time, almost all of them were located outside settlements.

Technique metallurgical production consisted in the direct reduction of iron ore into metallic iron. During the production of steel, iron was saturated with carbon. This method is called raw. The essence of the cheese-making process is that iron ore, poured into the furnace on top of burning coal, undergoes chemical changes: iron oxides (ore) lose their oxygen and turn into iron, which flows into the lower part of the furnace in a thick paste-like mass. Necessary condition to restore iron is a constant supply of air. The disadvantage of this method was the low percentage of metal smelting from ore. Part of the metal remained in the ore. The process of restoring iron was called "boiling", it required great experience and skill from the master. Cooking greatly expanded the possibilities of blacksmithing technology. In addition to iron, carbon steel was widely used in Ancient Rus'. The working elements of cutting tools, weapons, tools were made of steel - an alloy of iron and carbon. In ancient Russian written monuments, steel is referred to under the name "ocel", and in total in Rus' three types of steel were used:

cemented (stewed) with a homogeneous structure and evenly distributed throughout the mass of carbon
welding steel of heterogeneous structure
cheesy, slightly and unevenly carburized

Blacksmiths-gunsmiths constituted a special group of artisans. The production of weapons was widely developed in Ancient Rus' due to the general need for it. Different types of weapons have received special names according to the way they are made, appearance and coloration, or according to their main place of production. Specialization in the weapons business reached a large scale, as it required especially careful and skillful processing techniques.

Wood processing

The main material for production in Rus' was wood. Dwellings, city fortifications, workshops, outbuildings, ships, sledges, pavements, water pipes, machines and machine tools, tools and tools, dishes, furniture, household utensils, children's toys, etc. were made from it. Wood processing was especially developed in the central and northern regions of Rus', rich in coniferous and deciduous forests. Old Russian masters knew well technical properties and other qualities of wood of all species growing in Russian forests and widely used it depending on the technical conditions of the product and the physical and mechanical properties of the breed.

In processing, pine and spruce were the most common. Pine was preferred for joinery, household utensils, etc., and spruce, in turn, was most widely used in construction. Hardwood was mainly used for the manufacture of household items, it was rarely used in construction. Oak, birch, aspen were practically not used in the construction of residential and outbuildings. Oak wood was in short supply, so they tried to use it in the manufacture of products of increased strength, such as sled skids, barrels, shovels, etc. Maple and ash were used quite widely. Carved dishes, ladles, spoons, etc. were made from maple. Ash went to the production of turned dishes, which were made on lathes.

Old Russian craftsmen also mastered the processing of rare breeds in Rus', such as boxwood. This breed was delivered from the Caucasus, from the forests of Talysh. Double-sided combs and small pixids were made from boxwood (it is important to note that wooden combs in Ancient Rus' were made almost exclusively from boxwood).

Little is known about the technique and organization of wood harvesting in Ancient Rus'. The felling of the forest was a feudal duty of the peasants, it was cut down in winter. Archaeological monuments associated with wood processing are mainly represented by tools and directly by the products of craftsmen. At the same time, few workshops were found, a significant part of them was discovered during excavations in Novgorod the Great. In particular, there were workshops of wood turners, coopers, comb makers, spoon makers, crockery cutters, etc. level and were not inferior to the best Western European models of that time.

Non-ferrous metal processing

The products of craftsmen for the processing of non-ferrous metals in Ancient Rus' were in great demand. They made women's jewelry and costume accessories, cult items and church utensils, decorative and tableware, horse harness, jewelry for weapons, etc. The main branch of the non-ferrous metalworking industry was foundry, which reached a high artistic and technological development in Ancient Rus'. Numerous mechanical operations were also widely used - forging, chasing, rolling, engraving, embossing, stamping, drawing, filigree, blackening, enamel, gold pointing and inlay with metals. Forging, chasing and stamping were the main mechanical operations in the manufacture of any non-cast item.

Ancient Rus' did not have its own non-ferrous metals and their ores. They were brought from the countries of Western Europe and the East. Gold mostly came in the form of coins. It was obtained as a result of trade or wars with Byzantium and the Cumans. Silver went to Rus' in the form of coins and ingots. It came from Bohemia, from beyond the Urals, from the Caucasus and from Byzantium. Copper, tin and lead were imported in the form of ingots and semi-finished products in the form of rods, strips and wire. At the same time, documentary evidence of the nature and ways of imports appeared only in the XIV century.

Gold and silver were used for minting coins, making seals, bowls, cups, etc. The main buyers of products from them were princes and wealthy people, as well as clergy. In addition to bowls and other church vessels, the clergy acquired gold and silver crosses, frames for icons and gospels used during church services. Some cathedral churches had gilded domes. Sometimes certain parts of the internal walls and partitions of churches were covered with gold and silver plates.

Jewelers in Ancient Rus' were called "zlatari" or "silver". Jewelry production was distributed mainly in major cities. Part of the products went to a wide market, the other part was made to order. The princes patronized the jewelers. Among the cities where jewelry was developed, Ryazan, Kyiv, Polotsk and Novgorod stood out.

Casting was the main production technology. However, in addition to it, the following operations were also used in the processing of non-ferrous metals: chasing, embossing, stamping, etc. These operations required a developed toolkit, which included simple and figured anvils, anvils for chasing, simple and figured hammers, bone hammers for punching , chasers, pliers, wire cutters, tweezers, chisels, drills, clamps, barbs, metal scissors, etc.

Spinning and weaving

Spinning and weaving occupied one of the most important places in the handicraft production of Ancient Rus'. It was the most massive and widely distributed, directly related to the manufacture of clothing and other household items. Its spread was facilitated by population growth and the development of trade. Hand weaving as a home craft was quite common. The range of ancient Russian fabrics was very wide. In addition to locally produced fabrics, imported ones were also used - woolen, silk, cotton, brought from the countries of the East, Byzantium and Western Europe. Fabrics in the form of various fragments are widely represented among ancient Russian archaeological finds. Some of them were found in mounds, the rest - during excavations of ancient Russian cities.

In Ancient Rus', fabrics were made from wool, flax and hemp. They differed in material, quality, types of weaves, texture and color. A simple linen fabric, going to men's and women's shirts, ubrus, towels, was called canvas and uscinka. A coarse fabric made from vegetable fiber, used in the manufacture of outerwear, was called votola. There were other names for linen fabrics - part, thin, etc. Of the woolen fabrics, the most common were ponyava and sackcloth, yariga and sermyaga belonged to coarse fabrics. Cloth was made for outerwear. A technological study of the fabrics of the period of Ancient Rus' showed that the weavers used several systems of weaving, combined into three groups with different options: linen, twill and complex. Three types of fabrics were also produced: fine-wooled, semi-coarse-wooled and coarse-wooled. Fine wool fabrics include different types cloth. Mostly woolen fabrics were made in red, then came black, green, yellow, blue and white.

Leather processing

The production of leather dressing and tailoring of leather products had a large specific gravity V national economy Ancient Rus'. Among the population, the demand for leather products was great. Shoes were made from leather, it was consumed in large quantities by saddlers and saddlers, horse harness, quivers, shields, bases of plate armor and other household items were made from it. Archaeological materials made it possible to completely reconstruct the technique and technology of leather and shoe production.

In the 9th-13th centuries, cowhide, goat and horse skins served as the main raw material for tanners. First technological stage work consisted in cleaning the skin from wool, which was done by processing it in a special vat with lime. Such a vat, which is a box made of wooden blocks, was found in Novgorod in a leather workshop of the 12th century. The next stage was the tanning of the skin, for which special solutions and mechanical softening were used - the skin was wrinkled by hand. After that, the dressed skin was cut and sewn together. Then it was used to make a wide variety of products.

Among the leather works, there were separate professions: saddlers and tulniki (makers of quivers), furriers and shoemakers, parchment and morocco makers.

Bone processing

The range of bone products in the 9th-13th centuries was quite wide. Combs, knife handles, buttons, mirror handles, chess and checkers, bow and saddle covers, icons were cut from bone. Of the specialized tools in bone carving, knives, cutters, drills, saws and a lathe were used. ABOUT high level bone-carving work is evidenced by horn combs, the cuts between the teeth of which sometimes did not exceed tenths of a millimeter. Most household items made of bone and horn were ornamented with chisels. Lathe was used in the manufacture of three-dimensional products - for example, bone playing checkers from the Black Grave in Chernigov were carved on it.

The bones of large domestic animals, as well as the antlers of elk and deer, were the mass material for bone-cutting production. Sometimes bull horns, aurochs and walrus ivory were used. The toolkit of the bone cutter consisted of a set of knives, saws, flat and engraving cutters, drills, drills, ordinary pen drills, files, rasps, etc.

Among the bone products, a significant mass was made up of artistic crafts: the tops of staffs, patch plates for caskets and leather bags, and various gifts. Tops were made in the form of heads of birds and animals and in the form of various geometric shapes. Fantastic animals, solar signs, geometric, floral, circular ornaments, all kinds of wickerwork and other motifs were depicted on flat overlays.

Pottery

The ubiquitous distribution of clays suitable for the manufacture of ceramic dishes ensured the widespread development of pottery in Ancient Rus'. It was distributed everywhere, but in the cities it was more developed than in the villages. The dishes were produced in various capacities and shapes, which determined the abundance of names to designate them. various kinds. In addition to dishes, potters produced children's toys, bricks, facing tiles, etc. They also made lamps, washstands, pots and other products. On the bottoms of many vessels, Old Russian artisans left special stamps in the form of triangles, crosses, squares, circles and other geometric shapes. On some pottery there were images of keys and flowers.

Among the archaeological finds, those made on a manual potter's wheel dominate. This is explained by the fact that at the turn of the 9th-10th centuries there was a transition from stucco ceramics to pottery, that is, circular. Pottery wheels were made of wood, so the remains of potter's wheels and their details have not been preserved. Academician Rybakov singled out two systems of pottery furnaces that were used by ancient Russian artisans - two-tier furnaces with a direct flame and horizontal furnaces with a reverse flame. According to Rybakov, the second system was more perfect. The forges were heated to a temperature of approximately 1200 °C.

Before the transition to circular ceramics pottery were predominantly women. However, with the advent of the potter's wheel, pottery passed to male artisans. The early potter's wheel was mounted on a rough wooden bench, which had a special hole that had an axle that held a large wooden wheel. While working, the potter rotated the circle with his left hand, and began to form clay with his right hand. Later, circles appeared that rotated with the help of legs.

glass making

Glassmaking in Ancient Rus' originated in the 11th century and reached significant development by the 12th-13th centuries. At the beginning of the 11th century, domestic-made glass beads became widespread, which were supplanted by imported products in the next century. The appearance of table glassware and various vessels dates back to the middle of the 11th century. By the 12th century, table glassware had become widespread, and ordinary citizens also used it. In the first half of the 12th century, glass bracelets, popular with women, became widespread. Almost every townswoman wore them.

In the 9th - early 11th centuries, several categories of glassware are known archaeologically for Ancient Rus'. Glass beads and beads were the most common, glass vessels and playing checkers are less common, and glass bracelets are even less common. During this period, all glass products in Rus' were imports - according to trade routes they came to Eastern Europe from Byzantium and the Arab world. The very first Russian glass-making workshops appeared in Kyiv in the first half of the 11th century in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. Perhaps the reason for this was the need to produce mosaics for the decoration of St. Sophia of Kyiv.

Glass products in Ancient Rus' were made from glass of different composition, which was determined by the purpose of the product. Glassware, window glass, beads, rings were made from potassium-lead-silica glass, which was slightly stained or colored. For the production of toys, Easter eggs, etc., lead-silica glass was used, painted in different colors.

Notes

Culture Ancient Rus (Russian). Retrieved March 30, 2013. Archived from the original on April 5, 2013.
Rybakov B. A. Craft of Ancient Rus'. - Moscow: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1948.
, With. 243.
, With. 244.
, With. 245.
, With. 247.
Blacksmithing in Rus' (Russian). Retrieved April 23, 2013. Archived from the original on April 30, 2013.
, With. 73.
, With. 254.
, With. 255.
, With. 261.
, With. 129.
, With. 75.
, With. 265.
, With. 132.

In ancient Rus' in the X century there was a craft with quite high technology production and significant differentiation by industry. was developed ferrous metallurgy on the basis of the raw iron process for the production of iron from swamp ores. Metallurgists who lived in rural areas supplied a significant amount of high-quality iron to the cities. City blacksmiths reworked some of it into high quality carbon steel. Leather and furrier production and the manufacture of leather shoes were developed. Several types of varietal leather are known. There was a wide range of woolen fabrics. Woodworking and bone processing were also developed. The processing of non-ferrous metals stood out. The technique of jewelry craft was at a high technological and artistic level.

Lapot, CC BY-SA 3.0

The first stage in the development of ancient Russian crafts lasted more than two centuries - until the 20-30s of the XII century. It is characterized by perfect and high technology of handicraft production. The number of products was limited, they themselves were quite expensive. During this period, work to order was common, since the free market was still limited. At this time, the main types of handicraft equipment were created and new technological foundations for ancient Russian production were laid. Archaeological excavations allow us to conclude that the handicraft production of Ancient Rus' was on the same level as the artisans of Western Europe and the East.

At the second stage of development, which began at the end of the first third of the 12th century, there was a sharp expansion of the product range and a significant rationalization of production in the form of a simplification of technological operations. In textile production, at the end of the 12th century, a horizontal loom appears. Productivity increases, the weaving system is simplified, and varietal types of fabrics are reduced. In metalworking, instead of high-quality multilayer steel blades, simplified and lower-quality blades with a welded edge appear. At this time, serial production also manifests itself. Product standards are being created, especially in metalworking, textile, woodworking, shoemaking, and jewelry crafts. During this period, a wide specialization of handicrafts within individual branches of production began. The number of specialties at the end of the 12th century in some ancient Russian cities exceeded 100. At the same time, there was a sharp development of small-scale production, the products of which were designed for sale not only in the city, but also in the villages.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion interrupted the development of ancient Russian crafts. This happened when it was in a state of high and constant development. The defeat of the conquered Russian cities of Eastern and Southern Rus' and the deportation of Russian artisans into slavery suspended the development of the craft and its technology for more than a century. In the lands and cities of the north and west of Rus' (Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, Polotsk, Galich, etc.), which were less affected by devastation, the development of crafts and culture continued, but it was burdened by the Tatar tribute.

crafts

Smelting and processing of iron and steel

The production of iron in Rus' has always been carried out by metallurgists who lived in villages. Ore was mined in autumn and spring. The metallurgical objects of Ancient Rus', excavated in the course of archaeological work, are the ruins of adobe and stone furnaces, around which accumulations of raw materials are located. More than 80 such objects, which are entire complexes, are known. At the same time, almost all of them were located outside settlements.

Lapot, CC0 1.0

The technique of metallurgical production consisted in the direct reduction of iron ore into metallic iron. During the production of steel, iron was saturated with carbon. This method is called raw. The essence of the raw blowing process lies in the fact that iron ore, poured into the furnace over burning coal, undergoes chemical changes: iron oxides (ore) lose their oxygen and turn into iron, which flows down into the lower part of the furnace in a thick paste-like mass.

A necessary condition for the reduction of iron is a constant supply of air. The disadvantage of this method was the low percentage of metal smelting from ore. Part of the metal remained in the ore. The process of restoring iron was called "boiling", it required a lot of experience and skill from the master. Cooking greatly expanded the possibilities of blacksmithing technology. In addition to iron, carbon steel was widely used in Ancient Rus'. The working elements of cutting tools, weapons, tools were made of steel - an alloy of iron and carbon. In ancient Russian written monuments, steel is referred to under the name "ocel", and in total in Rus' three types of steel were used:

cemented (stewed) with a homogeneous structure and evenly distributed throughout the mass of carbon
welding steel of heterogeneous structure
cheesy, slightly and unevenly carburized

Blacksmiths-gunsmiths constituted a special group of artisans. The production of weapons was widely developed in Ancient Rus' due to the general need for it. Various types of weapons were given special names according to the way they were made, their appearance and color, or according to the main place of their production. Specialization in weapons business reached a large scale, as it required especially careful and skillful processing techniques.

Wood processing

The main material for production in Rus' was wood. Dwellings, city fortifications, workshops, outbuildings, ships, sledges, pavements, water pipes, machines and machine tools, tools and tools, dishes, furniture, household utensils, children's toys, etc. were made from it. Wood processing was especially developed in the central and northern regions of Rus', rich in coniferous and deciduous forests. Old Russian masters were well aware of the technical properties and other qualities of wood of all species growing in Russian forests and widely used it depending on technical specifications products and physical and mechanical properties of the rock.

In processing, pine and spruce were the most common. Pine was preferred for joinery, household utensils, etc., and spruce, in turn, was most widely used in construction. Hardwood was mainly used for the manufacture of household items, it was rarely used in construction. Oak, birch, aspen were practically not used in the construction of residential and outbuildings. Oak wood was in short supply, so they tried to use it in the manufacture of products of increased strength, such as sleigh skids, barrels, shovels, etc. Maple and ash were widely used. Carved utensils, ladles, spoons, etc. were made from maple. Ash was used to manufacture turned utensils, which were made on lathes.

N. K. Roerich, Public Domain

Old Russian craftsmen also mastered the processing of breeds rare in Rus', such as boxwood. This breed was delivered from the Caucasus, from the forests of Talysh. Double-sided combs and small pixides were made from boxwood (it is important to note that wooden combs in Ancient Rus' were made almost exclusively from boxwood).

Non-ferrous metal processing

Ancient Rus' did not have its own non-ferrous metals and their ores. They were brought from the countries of Western Europe and the East. Gold mostly came in the form of coins. It was obtained as a result of trade or wars with Byzantium and the Polovtsians. Silver went to Rus' in the form of coins and ingots. It came from Bohemia, from beyond the Urals, from the Caucasus and from Byzantium. Copper, tin and lead were imported in the form of ingots and semi-finished products in the form of rods, strips and wire. At the same time, documentary evidence of the nature and ways of imports appeared only in the XIV century.

Jewelers in Ancient Rus' were called "zlatari" or "silver". Jewelry production was distributed mainly in large cities. Part of the products went to a wide market, the other part was made to order. The princes patronized the jewelers. Among the cities where jewelry was developed, Ryazan, Kyiv, Polotsk and Novgorod stood out.

Spinning and weaving

In ancient Rus', fabrics were made from wool, flax and hemp. They differed in material, quality, types of weaves, texture and color. A simple linen fabric, going to men's and women's shirts, robes, towels, was called canvas and uscinka. A coarse fabric made from plant fiber, used in the manufacture of outerwear, was called votola. There were other names for linen fabrics - part, thin, etc. Of the woolen fabrics, the most common were ponyava and sackcloth, and yariga and sermyaga belonged to coarse fabrics. Cloth was made for outerwear. A technological study of the fabrics of the period of Ancient Rus' showed that the weavers used several systems of weaving, combined into three groups with different options: linen, twill and complex. Three types of fabrics were also produced: fine-wooled, semi-coarse-wooled and coarse-wooled. Fine-wooled fabrics include different types of cloth. Mostly woolen fabrics were made in red, then black, green, yellow, blue and white.

Leather processing

The production of leather dressing and tailoring of leather products had a large share in the national economy of Ancient Rus'. Among the population, the demand for leather products was great. Shoes were made from leather, it was consumed in large quantities by saddlers and saddlers, horse harness, quivers, shields, bases of plate armor and other household items were made from it. Archaeological materials have made it possible to completely reconstruct the technique and technology of leather and shoe production.

In the 9th-13th centuries, cowhide, goat and horse skins served as the main raw material for tanners. The first technological stage of the work consisted in cleaning the skin from wool, which was done by processing it in a special vat with lime. Such a vat, which is a box made of wooden blocks, was found in Novgorod in a leather workshop of the 12th century. The next stage was the tanning of the skin, for which special solutions and mechanical softening were used - the skin was wrinkled by hand. After that, the dressed skin was cut and sewn together. Then it was used to make a wide variety of products.

Among the leather works there were separate professions: saddlers and tulniks (quiver makers), furriers and shoemakers, parchment and morocco makers.

Bone processing

The range of bone products in the 9th-13th centuries was quite wide. Combs, knife handles, buttons, mirror handles, chess and checkers, bow and saddle covers, icons were cut from bone. Of the specialized tools in bone carving, knives, cutters, drills, saws and a lathe were used. The high level of bone carving is evidenced by horn combs, the cuts between the teeth of which sometimes did not exceed tenths of a millimeter. Most household items made of bone and horn were ornamented with chisels. The lathe was used in the manufacture of three-dimensional products - for example, bone playing checkers from the Black Grave in Chernihiv were turned on it.

Among the bone products, a significant mass was made up of artistic crafts: the tops of staffs, patch plates on caskets and leather bags, and various gifts. Tops were made in the form of heads of birds and animals and in the form of various geometric shapes. Fantastic animals, solar signs, geometric, floral, circular ornaments, all kinds of wickerwork and other motifs were depicted on flat overlaid plates.

Pottery

The ubiquitous distribution of clays suitable for the manufacture of ceramic dishes ensured the widespread development of pottery in Ancient Rus'. It was widespread everywhere, but in the cities it was more developed than in the villages. The dishes were produced in various capacities and shapes, which determined the abundance of names for designating its various types. In addition to dishes, potters produced children's toys, bricks, facing tiles, etc. They also made lamps, washstands, pots and other items. On the bottoms of many vessels, Old Russian artisans left special stamps in the form of triangles, crosses, squares, circles and other geometric shapes. On some pottery there were images of keys and flowers.

Lobachev Vladimir, CC BY-SA 3.0

Before the transition to circular ceramics, pottery was predominantly done by women. However, with the advent of the potter's wheel, pottery passed to male artisans. The early potter's wheel was mounted on a rough wooden bench, which had a special hole that had an axle that held a large wooden wheel. While working, the potter rotated the circle with his left hand, and began to form clay with his right hand. Later, circles appeared that rotated with the help of the legs.

glass making

Glassmaking in Ancient Rus' originated in the 11th century and reached significant development by the 12th-13th centuries.

At the beginning of the 11th century, domestic-made glass beads became widespread, which were supplanted by imported products in the next century. The appearance of table glassware and various vessels dates back to the middle of the 11th century. By the 12th century, table glassware had become widespread, and ordinary citizens also used it. In the first half of the 12th century, glass bracelets, popular with women, became widespread. They were worn by almost every townswoman.

Lobachev Vladimir, CC BY-SA 3.0

During this period, all glass products in Rus' were imported - along trade routes they got to Eastern Europe from Byzantium and the Arab world. The very first Russian glass-making workshops appeared in Kyiv in the first half of the 11th century in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. Perhaps the reason for this was the need to produce mosaics for the design of St. Sophia of Kyiv.

Photo gallery

Start date: 9th century

Expiration date: 1237

Old Russian crafts

With the development of the feudal system, part of the communal artisans became dependent on the feudal lords, some left the countryside and went to cities and fortresses, where handicraft settlements were created.

By the 12th century, there were over 60 handicraft specialties in them. Part of the crafts was based on metallurgical production, the high level of development of which is evidenced by the use of welding, casting, metal forging, welding and hardening of steel by artisans.

Old Russian artisans produced more than 150 types of iron and steel products. These products played an important role in the development of trade relations between cities and towns. countryside. Old Russian jewelers mastered the art of minting non-ferrous metals. Craft workshops produced tools (ploughshares, axes, chisels, pincers, etc.), weapons (shields, chain mail armor, spears, helmets, swords, etc.), household items (keys, etc.), jewelry - gold, silver, bronze, copper.

Craft- small manual production, based on the use of hand tools, which makes it possible to produce high-quality, often.

Craft arose with the beginning production activities man, has passed a long historical path of development, taking various forms: a) home craft- in the conditions of natural economy; b) craft to order- in the conditions of decomposition of natural economy; V) craft to market. The appearance and development of cities as craft and trade centers is associated with the emergence of handicrafts to order and especially to the market. Home craft is often referred to as domestic industry (i.e. production of non-agricultural products), craft to order and to the market - handicraft industry. In Russian statistical literature, often all artisans of the 19th-20th centuries. were called artisans.

home craft widespread throughout the history of pre-capitalist societies. The rural population produced most of the handicrafts they consumed. Gradually, the craft to order and the market began to play a leading role. In ancient Greece, ancient Rome, in the countries of the ancient East, there were a significant number of artisans who led independent households and made products to order or to the market.

Formation professional craft, especially in cities, led to the emergence new sphere production and a new social stratum - urban artisans. The emergence of developed forms of their organization (shops), which protected the interests of this layer, created a special favorable conditions for the development of urban crafts in the Middle Ages. The leading branches of urban craft were: cloth-making, production metal products, glassware, etc. In the process of the industrial revolution (mid-18th century - first half of the 19th century), the factory industry, based on the use of machines, supplanted handicrafts. The craft (to order and to the market) has been preserved in industries associated with servicing the individual needs of the consumer or with the production of expensive art products - pottery, weaving, artistic carving etc.

To a greater extent, the craft has been preserved in underdeveloped countries. However, even here it is being supplanted by the factory industry as a result of the industrialization of these countries. Folk arts and crafts associated with tourism and export are preserved.

Types of crafts

Since ancient times, mankind has known such crafts as:

and many others.

In Russia, after 1917, the number of artisans and handicraftsmen was sharply reduced, they were united in trade cooperation. Only a few world-famous folk art crafts have survived: Gzhel ceramics, Dymkovo toy, Palekh miniature, Khokhloma painting and etc.

art craft

art craft- culture of labor professional skills and techniques artistic processing of various materials (metal, leather, fabrics, etc.), developed in the process of accumulating the creative experience of craftsmen who create artistic products. Professional experience art craft was formed by discovering the most effective in the aesthetic sense of the methods and techniques of artistic processing of the material, bringing it to perfection. This experience has been accumulated over the centuries, passed down from generation to generation. In the old days, the well-being of the country and the general level of its culture were judged by artistic craft. The masters of Ancient Rus' and the Western European Middle Ages were divided according to professions, within which they possessed the universal ability to apply various methods of artistic processing of a particular material. Thus, gold and silver craftsmen mastered the techniques of forging, casting, chasing, filigree, engraving, blackening on silver, and enamelling. They specialized in types of products (weapons, book salaries, Jewelry etc.). This kind of specialization took place in pottery, weaving, artistic sewing, etc. In ancient Kyiv, for example, there were 60 different craft professions. By social position artisans were divided into patrimonials, who worked at the princely court, and monastic, urban and townspeople. The former worked on commission carefully and for a long time, reaching the highest perfection and skill in their work. Posad art craft was reflected in the work of urban craftsmen associated with the market. They developed the ability to economically achieve an artistic effect that brings the product closer to expensive samples. Common aesthetic ideals of the people, professional artistry manual labor determined the development of the culture of artistic crafts. Every item was creatively created. The artistry of the master was highly valued; belonging to the category of masters was determined by the ability to perfectly complete the most difficult artistic product. In Rus', there were handicraft corporations organized according to the type of Western workshops. Their activities were regulated special rules and laws. Developing on the basis of folk traditions, the artistic craft of each country retained its national identity and at the same time reflected the development of world styles. , since its development is inseparable from the artistic imagery, aesthetics, culture of each people.

Folk art crafts

Folk art crafts (folk craft) - a wide range of products made using simple improvised materials and simple tools. This traditional type of craft is diverse, where things are created with one's own hands with the help of skills and ingenuity. Work can be done on fabric, wood, non-ferrous metals, paper, etc. Usually the term is applied to things that have not only aesthetic value, but also find practical applications.

folk craft takes some of the origins of the rural craft, thanks to which the basic necessities were created, including complex structures. Rural crafts have been known since ancient times, in fact, having appeared at a time when humanity needed new tools and household items. In different regions and regions, among different peoples, arts and cultures differed, therefore, their crafts also varied. Like folk art, folk craft often depended on religious, cultural, and sometimes even political beliefs.

Many handicrafts created from natural or near-natural materials, but many modernists also use unusual elements and structures, such as industrial parts and mechanisms.

Products are considered folk craft until the process of their manufacture is put on stream ( mass production factory type).

Because the handmade and this kind of craft develops intellect and various kinds of skills, sometimes special tasks for creating something are introduced into the educational processes of schools and institutes. Many products require certain skills to make, but generally anyone can learn the craft. Many types of crafts become popular after some time after their appearance, sometimes not.

History of crafts

Already in ancient world there are the beginnings of handicraft activity, manifested in the processing of known objects, mostly at the home of the owner of the material and by the hands of slaves. We have the testimony of Homer about this character of handicraft work in Greece.

With the contempt of the Greeks for handicraft work, which was recognized as unworthy of a free person, R., as a permanent professional activity, was the work of a very limited contingent of people, except for the metoiki and slaves that were part of the house.

Some crafts in Greece, however, rose to a high level, despite the use of the simplest tools and tools. Over time, R. became widespread not only in luxury goods, but also in satisfying the everyday needs of the lower classes of the population.

Already in Greece, artisans sometimes experienced competition from relatively large industries, arising from the middle of the 5th century BC. e. The same, in general, is the nature of handicraft production in Rome. With the existence of isolated, closed farms that satisfied their needs through the specialization of slave labor, there was no ground in Rome for the development of slavery as a free professional activity; in the absence of a contingent of people who would constantly need the products of someone else's labor and would be able to pay for them, Roman artisans, budler, etc. and (artifices) had to fill the ranks of the proletarians. Only if there is a known property that served as a source of income (usually a small land plot), an artisan could exist comfortably and, in the execution of random orders, have ancillary earnings. With the formation of large estates, which absorbed a significant part of the small land plots, artisans, whose ranks were mainly replenished by freedmen, had to look for work on the side and perform it at the customer's home.

In order to increase the volume of production in any artel, the artel could be economically controlled or acquired by one or more owners, and then it would grow into a factory or plant. With the appearance in any craft of an increasing number of complex and energy-intensive machines and mechanisms, and, especially, with the involvement of the achievements of science, the craft grew into industry. The presence of complex and numerous machines and mechanisms and science-intensive processes is exactly the line beyond which fishing ends and industry begins. An example here is the transformation in Russia in the 19th century of Ivanovo, formerly a typical settlement consisting mainly of weaving artels, into a city with a large number of weaving factories. Further, with the great application of modern, scientifically based processes, Ivanovo became the center textile industry in Russia. Here are some other examples of the "evolution" of crafts into industry with increasing production volumes, increasing complexity and an increase in the number of equipment used and with the involvement of science:

baking and milling have become, each in its own part of the food industry
shoemaking has evolved over the years into the footwear industry
weaving and spinning together gave birth to the textile industry
tailoring turned into a clothing industry
blacksmithing became the progenitor of a number of industries associated with metal processing.

However, many crafts continue to exist alongside the industries they gave birth to, creating a professional environment from which a mass of specialists is recruited into the respective industry. So, for example, highly skilled carpenters or shoemakers use their potential in the furniture or shoe industries.

Ordinary ideas about the craft, as obsolete in modern society phenomena are deceptive. And in our time, new crafts continue to appear. In the field information technologies with the beginning of development social networks the craft of an SMM specialist or, as it is more often called, a community manager, appeared. Such new crafts You can count at least ten.

An indicator of the shift in the productive forces of Rus' in the 11th - early 12th centuries. appeared further development crafts. In the countryside, under the dominance of natural economy, the manufacture of clothing, footwear, utensils, agricultural implements, etc., was a domestic production that had not yet separated from agriculture. Blacksmithing and, to a lesser extent, pottery, separated themselves from agriculture. Bone-cutting and carpentry also acquired a handicraft character. In Volhynia, entire villages made slate whorls for spindles, which were distributed throughout Rus'.

With the development of the feudal system, part of the communal artisans became dependent on the feudal lords, others left the village and went under the walls of princely castles and fortresses, where handicraft settlements were created. The possibility of a break between the artisan and the countryside was due to the development of agriculture, which was able to provide the urban population with food, and the beginning of the separation of handicrafts from agriculture. Cities became centers for the development of handicrafts. In them by the XII century. There were over 60 handicraft specialties. A significant part of the crafts was based on metallurgical production, the level of which is indicative for assessing the development of the craft as a whole. If in the countryside the blast-furnace business had not yet separated from blacksmithing, then in the cities in the field of iron and steel processing there appeared at least 16 specialties that ensured a significant output of products. The technical level of metallurgical production is evidenced by the use of welding, casting, metal forging, welding and hardening of steel by artisans.

Russian artisans of the XI-XII centuries. produced more than 150 types of iron and steel products, their products played an important role in the development of trade relations between the city and the countryside. Old Russian jewelers knew the art of minting non-ferrous metals. Craft workshops produced tools (ploughshares, axes, chisels, tongs, etc.), weapons (shields, chain mail armor, spears, helmets, swords, etc.), household items (keys, etc.), jewelry - gold, silver, bronze, copper.

In the field of artistic crafts, Russian craftsmen mastered the complex technique of granulation (making patterns from the smallest grains of metal), filigree (making patterns from the finest wire), figured casting, and, finally, the technique of niello (making a black background for patterned silver plates) and cloisonné, which requires special art. enamel. Beautiful items with gold and silver inlays on iron and copper have been preserved. Such types of crafts as pottery, leather, woodworking, stone cutting, and dozens of others received significant development in ancient Russian cities. With its products, Rus' won fame in what was then Europe. In the cities, artisans worked to order and to the market. However, the social division of labor in the country as a whole was weak. The village lived by subsistence farming. The products of a few village artisans were distributed over a distance of about 10-30 km. Penetration into the village from the city of small retail traders did not violate the natural character rural economy. Centers domestic trade were cities. There were markets that sold both food and handicrafts; foreign merchants brought their goods there. But also urban commodity production did not change the natural economic basis of the country's economy.

was more developed international trade Rus'. Russian merchants traded in the possessions of the Arab Caliphate. The Dnieper path connected Rus' with Byzantium. Russian merchants traveled from Kyiv to Moravia, the Czech Republic, Poland, and South Germany; from Novgorod and Polotsk - along the Baltic Sea to Scandinavia, the Polish Pomerania and further to the west. In the customs charter of the X century. the city of Raffelstetten (Germany), Slavic merchants are mentioned. Exported from Rus' mainly raw materials. With the development of handicrafts, the export of handicraft products increased. On foreign market furs, wax, honey, resin, flax and linen fabrics, silver items, a whorl made of pink slate, weapons, locks, carved bone, etc. were brought in. Luxury items, fruits, spices, paints, etc. were imported into Rus'.

The princes sought to protect the interests of Russian merchants through special agreements with foreign states. In the "Russian Truth" of the later (so-called "Large") edition of the XII-beginning of the XIII century. some measures were envisaged to protect the property of merchants from losses associated with wars and other circumstances. Silver bars and foreign coins were used as money. Princes Vladimir Svyatoslavich and his son Yaroslav Vladimirovich issued (albeit in small quantities) minted silver coins.

However, foreign trade did not change the natural character of the Russian economy, since the vast majority of export items (furs, etc.) were not produced as goods, but were received in the form of tribute or dues from smerds; things brought from abroad served only the needs of wealthy feudal lords and townspeople. Almost no foreign goods penetrated into the countryside.

With the growth of the social division of labor, cities developed. They arose from fortresses-castles, gradually overgrown with settlements, and from trade and craft settlements, around which fortifications were erected. The city was connected with the nearest rural district, the products of which he lived and the population of which he served with handicrafts. At the same time, part of the urban population maintained a connection with agriculture, although it was an auxiliary occupation for the townspeople.

Scandinavian sources called Rus' "a country of cities". These cities meant both craft and trade centers and small fortified settlements. Russian chronicles, having preserved mentions of cities, probably incomplete, make it possible to judge their growth. In chronicles of the IX-X centuries. 25 cities are mentioned, in the news of the XI century. -89. The heyday of ancient Russian cities falls on the XI-XII centuries.

The ancient Russian city consisted of a fortress - a citadel and an urban settlement, where the trade and craft population lived and there was a market - bargaining. The population in such large cities as Kyiv, which the chronicler of the XI century. Adam of Bremen called the "rival of Constantinople", or Novgorod, in the XI-XII centuries. apparently numbered in the tens of thousands. The urban artisan population was replenished with runaway serfs and dependent serfs.

As in the countries of Western Europe, craft and merchant associations arose in ancient Russian cities, although a guild system did not develop here. So, there were associations of carpenters and city dwellers (builders of fortifications) headed by elders, brotherhoods of blacksmiths. Craftsmen were divided into masters and apprentices. In addition to free artisans, patrimonial artisans also lived in the cities, who were serfs of princes and boyars. The boyars made up the urban nobility.

The large cities of Rus' (Kyiv, Chernigov, Polotsk, Novgorod, Smolensk, etc.) were administrative, judicial and military centers. At the same time, having grown stronger, the cities contributed to the process of political fragmentation. This was a natural phenomenon in the conditions of the dominance of subsistence farming and with the weakness economic ties between individual lands.

Handicraft production in Rus'. Ancient crafts of Rus'

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Subtitles

general characteristics

crafts

Smelting and processing of iron and steel

Wood processing

Non-ferrous metal processing

Spinning and weaving

Leather processing

Bone processing

Pottery

glass making

see also

Notes

crafts

Smelting and processing of iron and steel

Wood processing

Non-ferrous metal processing

Spinning and weaving

Leather processing

Bone processing

Pottery

glass making

Photo gallery

Old Russian crafts

Types of crafts

art craft

Folk art crafts

History of crafts

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