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Coursework: Forms and methods of breeding work in the breeding farm, breeding reproducer, farming. Organization of breeding work in pig breeding Organization of selective breeding work in animal husbandry

Zootechnics is the scientific basis for the development of animal husbandry, developing biological and technological measures to improve the system of breeding, feeding, keeping, rearing and fattening animals. Achievements in zootechnical science serve as the basis for the development and implementation of intensive technology for the production of livestock products.

The task of breeding work- creation and breeding of animals that best meet the requirements and conditions of each specific production. In order to intensify animal husbandry, it is necessary to improve the quality of animals, increase their productivity, precocity, fertility, resistance to diseases, etc., create herds with good breeding qualities and highly efficiently transform feed into products. In this regard, the nationwide program for the qualitative transformation of farm animals, provided for by the Decree of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR (1986) "On measures to increase the efficiency and improve the organization of breeding in animal husbandry", plans to widely use domestic and world genetic resources, implement the achievements scientific and technological progress in breeding and biotechnology.

The following requirements are imposed on animals as a means of production in conditions of intensive industry management. They must be distinguished by high productivity, pay well for feed with products, and meet new requirements. technological requirements in connection with the industrialization of animal husbandry and the widespread introduction of mechanization and automation, to pass on valuable economically useful qualities to offspring, etc. The products of the breeding economy are breeding animals, their value determines the level and efficiency of breeding work. Custom (commercial) animal husbandry should provide the necessary planned production of products, which depends primarily on the availability of highly productive animals. The direction and size of livestock breeding are determined by the needs of user (commercial) animal husbandry in breeding animals.

In our country, significant success has been achieved in breeding work, a good breeding base has been formed. By the beginning of 1986, there were more than 2,000 breeding farms and about 9,000 breeding farms. The created breeding network makes it possible to annually supply more than 1 million head of cattle for the improvement of livestock on farms. breeding young cattle, about 1.4 million pigs and 2.8 million goals. sheep.

In recent years, the very organization of the tribal service has changed markedly. The structure of the breeding network is being improved, the ties between its individual links are being strengthened, and the methods of selection and breeding work are being improved. State breeding stations, breeding centers for working with breeds and species of animals have been created, research and production and production associations are being organized, a network of control and testing stations, silos for growing and evaluating producers is expanding. In work with livestock and poultry breeds, large-scale breeding is becoming more and more widespread, research institutions are working out fundamentally new and effective methods reproduction, selection and reproduction of animals.

However, the current state of animal husbandry, the tasks for its further development demand to accelerate the improvement of the organization of breeding business on the basis of "... the use of the achievements of genetics and selection, new biological methods for the qualitative improvement of the herd, to significantly increase the productivity of livestock and poultry."

Using advances in breeding and technology, many farms systematically achieve high productivity from animals. In the Lesnoye state stud farm in the Leningrad Region in 1985, an average of 6703 kg of milk with a fat content of 3.84% was milked from each cow, in the Petrovsky state stud farm in the same region, the average milk yield for a herd of 1100 cows was 6610 kg. In the experimental farm of the Research Institute of Agriculture of the Central Non-Chernozem Regions of the RSFSR "Nemchinovka", 7684 kg of milk was milked from each cow. Experimental farm KazNITIZH "Kamensky" received 5100 kg of milk from each of 1000 cows.

In various regions of the country there are farms that have achieved high animal productivity. These are the state breeding farms Nikonovskoye, Konstantinovo, Moscow Region, Kuban, Krasnodar Territory, the Iliysky state farm, Alma-Ata Region, and others, which in 1985 received 11-11.8 piglets for farrowing, with an average weight of each at 2 months of age about 20 kg, breeding farms "Soviet Fleece", "Russia" of the Stavropol Territory, "Country of Soviets" of the Altai Territory, etc., which in 1985 cut 3.2-3.5 kg of washed wool from each sheep.

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The main task of breeding work in modern pig breeding is the improvement of pigs of bred breeds in order to obtain animals that efficiently use feed and are suitable for industrial technology.
Organization of breeding work with pigs in breeding farms. In connection with the industrialization of the pig-breeding industry, the differentiation between breeding and commodity farms is increasingly deepening.
The results of practice and scientific and production experiments served as the basis for the transition to a step-by-step repair according to the scheme: breeding farm - breeding farm of the complex (breeding reproducer) - industrial herd. Such a system makes it possible to avoid inbreeding and effectively use the phenomenon of heterosis. This breeding system is currently the basis for industrial farms (with completed and incomplete production cycles), as well as territorial units (districts, regions, republics).
At the present stage of development of pig breeding, the breeding network should include the following links: breeding centers, breeding farms, breeding farms, breeding reproducers or breeding farms of industrial complexes.
One of the primary tasks facing pig breeding centers is the development and experimental verification of breeding programs, which, in addition to those usually included in the selection process of economically useful traits, would include new ones related to the industrial technology of pork production.
At present, the most important traits in breeding are: the ability of animals for long-term exploitation in conditions of industrial technology. At the same time, it is imperative to take into account the already accumulated data on the fattening and meat-fat qualities of pigs during breed tests.
Breeding plants carry out selection and breeding work to improve the herds, breeding new, more productive lines and families. The number of farms of this type is small; enough 1% of the queens in them of the total number of them in the industrial farms of the region, region.
Breeding farms are, as a rule, subdivisions of breeding farms, they work with them according to a single breeding program and are engaged in breeding lines and types created in breeding farms. The number of queens in such subsidiaries should be 4 times more than in breeding plants.
Breeding farms are engaged in the reproduction of replacement young animals for the acquisition and subsequent replenishment of loudspeakers of special farms and complexes. The number of queens on breeding farms should be 15% of the total number of queens in reproducers. Breeding animals on these farms is mostly purebred. Many breeding farms receive two-breed pigs on their farm, which complete the reproductive herds of pig breeding complexes.
In breeding farms, already proven breeding and selection methods should be widely used: purebred breeding by lines and families, selection of queens and boars by origin, exterior and constitution, breeding, large-fruitedness and evenness of the nest, multiple pregnancy and milk production, as well as by the quality of the offspring by the method of control fattening and control cultivation.
When carrying out breeding work in a breeding farm or on a breeding farm, the breeder must have a good idea of the desired type of animal in terms of development, productivity, exterior and constitution, which he should be guided by in the targeted selection, selection and cultivation of replacement young animals.
When creating specialized lines and types, approximate target standards are planned: for the paternal specialized line - by precocity (average daily gain in live weight for fattening - 700-800 g; age of reaching 100 kg live weight - 175-185 days with the cost of feed per 1 kg of gain 3.8-4 feed, units); for paternal line meat direction- fat thickness at the level of the 6-7th thoracic vertebra - 28-30 mm, muscle eye - 32-35 cm2, meat content in the carcass - 58-60%, back leg weight - 11-11.5 kg; for the maternal specialized line - multiple pregnancy - 11-12 piglets, the total weight of the nest at 2 months of age - 210-220 kg.
When using differentiated selection of pigs for intraline breeding, one cannot be carried away for a long time by one-sided selection of a single trait, since this can lead to a narrowing of the hereditary basis, reduce viability and weaken the constitution of the offspring. These undesirable phenomena can be prevented by a cross line. At the same time, excessive crossing leads to the loss of individual characteristics of individual lines and a decrease in their genetic heterogeneity.
In breeding farms, factory lines, related groups of queens are usually bred for 4-5 generations, and then a new ancestor is isolated and a new line or related group is laid.
In order to prevent inbreeding and maintain genetic differentiation in breeding herds, it is advisable to breed pigs in closed populations. It is recommended to keep in the herd eight related groups of boars and queens - the descendants of eight original pairs of ancestors and ancestors. With the correct selection of boars unrelated to them (in four rows of the pedigree), the unification of the genotype is excluded, sufficient variability and high productivity of the offspring are preserved. At the same time, the common origin, purposeful selection using complex inbreeding for outstanding ancestors in a moderate and distant degree ensure the similarity of genotypes and standard high productivity of all animals of this herd.
The data of the last test of all breeds of pigs bred in our country, in terms of fattening and meat qualities, indicate fairly high rates of their productivity. So, the average age of reaching a weight of 100 kg was 195 days, the average daily gain was 770 g, the feed consumption per 1 kg of gain was 3.93 feed. units Out of 1465 goal. pigs met the requirements of class I and the elite - in terms of growth rate of 65% and in terms of feed consumption per unit of growth of 75% of animals. For Large White pigs, the average daily gain in live weight was 725 g, the average age of reaching a weight of 100 kg was 192 days, feed costs were 3.91 feed. units The best results were respectively 753 g, 185 days and 3.86 feed. units
According to VNIIPlem for 1999 (Yearbook on breeding work in pig breeding in farms Russian Federation, Moscow, 2000), currently 27 breeds and types of pigs are bred in the Russian Federation: large white, early meat (SM-1), large black, Landrace, North Caucasian, Don meat, Breitovskaya, Belarusian black-and-white, Duroc , Kemerovo meat type (KM-1), Kemerovo, short-eared white, German landrace, Belgian landrace, Liven, Lithuanian white, Murom, Yorkshire, Urzhum, Welsh, Estonian bacon, kahib, Tsivil, experimental bacon, early meat Leningrad (CML) . In breeding farms and breeding reproducers for all breeds, the reproductive abilities of the queens were 10.9 and 10.5 heads, respectively, in terms of multiple pregnancies, 54.3 and 50.8 kg in milk production, and 9.6 and 9.3 heads in the number of piglets at weaning, nest weight at weaning - 172.2 and 161.5 kg, by weight of one piglet at weaning - 17.9 and 17.3 kg.
The main task of breeding farms is the cultivation and sale of high-value young animals. Thus, in 1998, 60,923 goals were sold for breeding purposes, including 27,489 breeding farms and 28,287 breeding reproducers. The current situation creates certain difficulties with the replacement of boars in user farms, which ultimately reduces the quality of boars-producers and leads to spontaneous inbreeding in pig breeding.
In recent years, for a number of reasons (lack of compound feed of the required formulation, etc.), the tendency to reduce the evaluation of boars in the breeding pig breeding by the method of control fattening of offspring has been steadily preserved. And only in 16 regions, territories, republics, some work is being done to assess the quality of the offspring of boars and queens. It should be noted that in 1998 in all categories of farms there were 499 evaluated boars-producers, and in 1999 - only 342 goals. According to the grading data for 1999, boars of the Large White, Landrace, North Caucasian, Kemerovo, Short-eared White and Tsivil breeds had an assessment (Table 5.19).

According to the breeding plan, according to which all breeding plants, farms, reproducers should work, the best animals, tested for hereditary qualities, will be widely used when improving the herd. From among the main queens and boars, the leading group of the herd (25-30%) should be formed. The performance indicators of animals in this group are 25-30% higher than the average for the herd. From pigs of the leading group, pedigree young animals are obtained for repairing their own main herd, from the remaining queens and boars - pedigree products for completing the broodstock of subsidiaries and for sale to the farms of the district and region.
An annual grading of animals is planned, which allows you to analyze the state of the herd, monitor the implementation of the selection and breeding plan and, if necessary, make appropriate adjustments.
They practice natural mating or artificial insemination of pigs with the individual selection of animals for mating. The following load is planned for one boar: 10-15 queens of the leading group; 15-20 queens of the rest of the herd.
The main herd of queens and boars is repaired annually by about 25-30%, which allows using the best animals up to 5 years of age and older (Table 5.20).

The number of checked queens is at least 80% of the main ones. This ensures that one queen out of three is introduced into the main herd after verification. Checked boars make up 80% of the main ones.
Features of breeding work in commodity farms industrial type. The industrialization of pig breeding has put forward new requirements for animals. Commodity pigs coming off the industrial conveyor of a modern industrial type enterprise must not only be highly productive, but also unified according to the main economic and useful traits, have a strong constitution, high viability in conditions of intensive use and lack of walking. In the course of the work of pig farms on an industrial basis, it was revealed that for large specialized farms or associations, the usually accepted methods of breeding work, methods of feeding and keeping animals are not always suitable. In progress production activities pig-breeding complexes and large farms of Moscow, Leningrad, Tyumen, Penza, Belgorod and other regions of Russia, it was revealed that high and stable indicators of animal productivity in pig-breeding enterprises of an industrial type can be maintained at the proper level with a combination of three mandatory components included in the breeding process: high heritability of traits, i.e. the ability of animals to sustainably transfer their valuable qualities to offspring under conditions of industrial technology; full feeding of pigs, contributing to the manifestation of their hereditary inclinations; necessary conditions content in which heredity can be fully manifested.
In conditions of intensive pork production, the pig breeding scheme is based on three main principles: the division of livestock into three production groups - breeding, user (reproductive) and fattening; repair of the broodstock of the user group at the expense of gilts obtained from the queens of the breeding group (pedigree); homogeneity of all production groups in terms of breed and linear composition.
An approximate structure of herds for farms (reproductive and with a complete production cycle) with uniform year-round farrowing was developed by the Poltava Research Institute of Pig Breeding (Table 5.21).

To obtain stable indicators of high productivity of pigs in the conditions of industrial technology, it is recommended to use interbreeding. As a result of scientific and industrial tests, it was found that hybrids, as a rule, are distinguished by increased viability, better absorption of feed, more high speed growth, better reproductive ability and more resistant to diseases. It is believed that at favorable conditions, the effect of crossing on average is about 10-15% in terms of live weight gain and 8-10% in terms of feed payment. When crossing sows of a large white breed of greasy type with boars of meat breeds (Landrace, Pietrain, etc.), the yield of meat in the carcass at slaughter increases by 3-5% in crossbreeds. As the practice of the work of pig-breeding enterprises shows, it is best to use animals of a large white breed to complete the broodstock of commercial farms. Pigs of this breed are distinguished by good precocity, high reproductive qualities and great plasticity in selection. In our studies, it was found that in many cases, when crossing, the fertility in queens of the Large White breed did not decrease and remained at a fairly high level.
For the successful application of the methods of industrial crossing and hybridization in the reproduction of pork on an industrial basis, VIZH employees proposed a system for breeding pigs, the basis of which is the production structure of the herd and the obligatory principle of one-way flow of animals from the breeding farm to the breeding group of the complex, then from it to the user herd and to the exit from complex through the fattening shop. The scheme of breeding pigs in a commercial economy with two-breed crossing is shown in fig. 5.3.

When using three-breed crossing in the breeding group (farm) of the complex, two-breed crossing is carried out; two-breed crossbred pigs complete and repair a user herd (reproductive farms), on which boars of meat breeds are used and three-breed young animals are obtained for fattening (Fig. 5.4).

The scheme of breeding pigs in a commercial economy with three-breed crossing: A, B, C - breeds of pigs; the movement of gilts is indicated by a solid line, the movement of boars is indicated by a dotted line.
When using two- or three-breed crossing or hybridization in industrial-type pig farms, it must be remembered that the effect of heterosis can manifest itself only with full feeding and favorable conditions for keeping animals that ensure their normal reproduction, good development and high productivity.
Forms of manifestation of heterosis are different. Usually, when animals of two breeds are crossed, the level of productivity of the crossbred offspring is equal to the average productivity of the original breeds - hypothetical (probable) heterosis. Often the productivity of hybrid animals is significantly higher than the average productivity of the parents, and sometimes it exceeds the performance of the best of the parental forms - absolute (true) heterosis. If the productivity of hybrids exceeds the performance of only one of the parents - the worst, then heterosis will be relative.
To determine the degree of these forms of heterosis, the following formulas are used:
absolute (true) - I \u003d (Pg / Pl * 100) - 100;
probable (hypothetical) - G \u003d Pg / 0.5 (Pm + Po) * 100 - 100;
relative (normal) - O = (Pg / Pm * 100) -100,
where Pg is a sign of a hybrid; Pl - a sign of the best breed; By - a sign of the paternal breed; Pm is a sign of the parent breed.
It should be noted that heterosis is manifested in crossbreds and hybrids - interbreed, interline - according to a limited number of signs, but is never observed in the sum of all signs inherent in parents. Often, heterosis is observed on one basis, its absence on the other, and intermediate inheritance on the third. Therefore, heterosis should be understood as the superiority of offspring (crossbreeds or hybrids) over parental forms, not in all, but only in specific characteristics.
The degree of manifestation of heterosis depends on the following conditions:
the nature of the inheritance of economically useful traits;
breed and breeding qualities and properties of parents;
individual compatibility of maternal and paternal heredity or selection of parental pairs and their combinational abilities;
heterogeneity of the crossed animals (especially from the correct choice of the maternal breed and from the correct selection of the paternal breed to it);
the level of feeding and maintenance, the adaptability of the breed of pigs to climatic conditions.
With interbreeding or intrabreeding linear hybridization in a breeding group, queens of a specialized (in terms of reproductive qualities) lines of the same breed are crossed with boars of a specialized line of the same or another breed. Hybrid gilts repair the broodstock of the user group. Two-line queens of the user group are crossed with boars specialized in fattening and meat qualities of lines of the same or third breed; all resulting hybrid young animals are fattened.
It should be noted that interbreeding industrial crossing and hybridization in pig breeding are not the same thing. Hybridization requires the use of specialized lines or stud types, testing of boars for the quality of offspring, checking lines for compatibility and widespread use in the commercial herd.

Selection and breeding work should be carried out on all farms where young animals are obtained and used to repair the herd.

The methods and forms of work depend on the direction of the farms, their categories are breeding (stud farms, breeding reproducers) and industrial reproducers, in which they are engaged in the production of commercial dairy cattle products and the reproduction of commercial livestock.

Breeding plants are engaged in the improvement of existing breeds of cattle, the creation of intrabreed zonal types, factory lines, types and families. Their main task is to supply breeding reproducers with replacement young animals, and artificial insemination stations with high-value sires, as well as the creation of new breeds of cattle.

Breeding reproducers are subdivisions of breeding farms, their task is to breed and improve animals of factory lines, types created in breeding farms, to supply breeding animals to industrial farms.

Industrial reproducers and dairy complexes produce marketable milk and livestock, and are engaged in the reproduction of young animals to repair their own herds.

Breeding work in breeding and industrial farms differs in breeding methods, methods of selection and selection of animals, methods of raising and exploiting cattle

The leading method of livestock breeding in breeding farms of all categories is purebred with the use of breeding by lines and families, individual homogeneous and heterogeneous selection is used. When creating new breeds, factory lines, families, moderate and distant related mating of animals is used.

In breeding plants, close inbreeding is sometimes used to consolidate breeding and productive qualities.

On industrial farms and dairy plants, various types of crossing and hybridization are used. On industrial farms that breed purebred cattle of planned breeds, purebred breeding is used, and where transitional, primitive breeds and crossbreeds are bred, absorption, variable and industrial crossbreeding is mainly used, using heterogeneous selection. Inbreeding is not allowed.

Breeding plants and breeding reproducers ensure the repair of the herd through their own reproduction. Breeding reproducers replenish herds by importing animals from breeding farms, and industrial reproducers and dairy complexes are partially provided with replacement young animals from breeding reproducers, but mainly by growing them on their own farms. Thus, a step-by-step system of reproduction and sale of replacement young animals has been created, which makes it possible to improve the main planned breeds bred depending on the specific natural and climatic conditions of farms, which makes it possible to improve animals of dairy breeds and actively influence the increase in productive qualities in the commercial part of the economy.

Department of Farm Animal Breeding

Course work

On the topic: “Forms and methods of breeding work in a breeding farm, breeding reproducer, farming»

Kirov 2008

Introduction ................................................ ................................................. ...... 4

1. Breeding methods............................................................... ..................................... 5

1.1 Breeding in lines .......................................................... ................................... 6

1.2 Inbreeding.............................................. ............................................... 12

1.3 Outbreeding.............................................. .............................................. 13

1.4 Crossing .............................................................. ............................................ 13

1.5 Hybridization.................................................... .......................................... 15

2. Selection and breeding work as a method of increasing the potential of productivity and breeding value of animals.................................................................. ................................. 17

2.1 Sexual maturity and use per tribe .......................................................... 23

2.2 Selection of animals for the tribe ............................................... ......................... 25

2.3 Evaluation of origin .................................................................. ........................... 26

2.4 Evaluation of the physique of the animal according to its individual productivity 28

2.5 Fertility and vitality............................................................... .................... 33

2.6 Progeny tests .......................................................... ...................... 34

2.7 Breeding methods............................................................... ................................. 39

2.8 Maintaining studbooks .......................................................... ........................... 41

3. Breeding base of animal husbandry in Russia .............................................. .... 43

3.1 The role of breeding enterprises (FGUP) in the development of animal husbandry .............................. 45

3.2 FSUE Breeding Enterprise "Voronezh" of the Voronezh Region ........ 47

3.3 Genetic reserves of the herd of the breeding farm "Gorshakha" .............................................. 49

3.4 Economic efficiency of the operation of the breeding farm "Sadovskoye" of the Novosibirsk region .............................................................. ................................................. ................. 58

3.5 Dynamics of development of the dairy herd of the Chistye Prudy breeding farm ...... 61

3.6 Breeding farm them. Dimitrova - a farm for breeding cattle of the Kazakh white-headed breed .............................................. ............................................... 64

3.7 The reproducer of the Kalmyk breed of cattle .............................................. .... 66

3.8 Breeding Hereford cattle...................................................................... 69

Conclusion................................................. ................................................. .72

List of references .............................................................................. ............. 73

Introduction

Breeding work is a set of measures aimed at improving the breeding and productive qualities of cattle, increasing the economic efficiency of livestock production.

The main elements of breeding (selection-breeding or breeding) work in cattle breeding: 1) evaluation of animals on breeding grounds; 2) selection of animals for the reproduction of the herd and the formation of breeding groups; 3) selection of parental forms (pairs) to obtain maximum genetic progress in terms of a set of economically useful traits. All these elements fit seamlessly into single system breeding work, called a breeding program. Breeding programs, and primarily their organizational and methodological parts, are based on the theoretical principles of population genetics, the actual theory of animal breeding and a number of related sciences, in particular, veterinary medicine, physiology, animal biochemistry, and others. When developing breeding programs, biotechnological methods and modern computer systems are increasingly being used, which make it possible to optimize both individual stages of the program and the breeding system as a whole.

1. Breeding methods

The main methods of breeding cattle include purebred breeding, crossbreeding and hybridization. When choosing one or another breeding method, the following are taken into account: the goals of improving the herds (which may change during the evolution of a particular breed); socio-economic and natural conditions production of various types of products; the degree of development and selection and genetic parameters of the level of expression of economically useful traits and other quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the breeds (populations) being bred.

The main task of purebred breeding is the preservation and multiplication in the offspring of the valuable qualities of the breed, passed down from generation to generation and fixed by purposeful selection and selection. Obviously, purebred breeding is the main method of improving the breeding qualities of cattle, that is, the main method of improving the breeding herd. However, it can be successfully applied in commercial (use) animal husbandry, since the pronounced hereditary conditionality of economically useful traits of the breed, primarily productivity, can be used to efficient production livestock products.

A necessary condition for conducting targeted selection and breeding work within the breed is a selection program for improving its specific properties, which determines the goals and stages of selection, the intensity of selection at each stage, the assessment of the breeding qualities of animals, the formation of breeding groups of animals and optimal system matings to obtain the maximum genetic shift (trend) for breeding traits in subsequent generations.

The importance of the breeding program with the breed (population) of cattle has increased immeasurably in connection with the development and introduction into the practice of breeding of the method of artificial insemination of the breeding stock with the sperm of sires, which can be stored frozen for a long time. The method of long-term storage of frozen sperm, the priority of introducing which into mass breeding belongs to the outstanding Soviet scientist V.K. Large-scale breeding - a system of breeding work, covering all structural units of the breed (groups of related breeds), based on the patterns of population genetics and modern computer technologies for genetic and mathematical analysis of the breeding situation in the breed, assessing the breeding value of animals, implementing optimal options for selection and selection with the aim of maximizing genetic progress on breeding traits in the breed and increasing the economic efficiency of breeding and livestock production.

1.1 Line breeding

Until recently, line breeding was considered the highest form of selection and breeding work. With regard to a number of species of farm animals (pigs, poultry), where the selection system is based on the manifestation of the effect of heterosis (the excess of the manifestation of the selection trait in the offspring over parental forms), this definition remains relevant, however, in cattle breeding, primarily dairy, this method loses its importance in connection with the rapid development of population genetics and the automation of zootechnical accounting, especially in the breeding zone. At the same time, in commercial (user) farms, where the culture of maintaining individual zootechnical records is still far from perfect, the rotational use of sires belonging to different lines remains the main method that allows, to a certain extent, to avoid closely related mating in the reproduction of broodstock.

In breeding work, there are types of lines: genealogical, factory, inbred, "false".

Genealogical line - a group of animals that have a common origin with an outstanding ancestor (ancestor of the line). Animals of a genealogical line do not necessarily have a high breeding value, since any, even a graded descendant of the ancestor of the line, formally belongs to this genealogical line.

Factory line - a group of animals descending from an outstanding ancestor and possessing valuable breeding and productive qualities specific to it, that is, only producers who have already been selected at certain stages of the breeding process and are intended for use in mass reproduction of broodstock can be attributed to the factory line.

An inbred line is specially bred using close inbreeding with a very high percentage of culling of animals with the expectation of obtaining heterosis from crossing such lines. Work with inbred lines is based on the use of non-additive inheritance and cannot be applied to large and small-bearing animals due to the impossibility of very intensive culling. In this regard, the creation and use of inbred lines is used mainly in poultry farming, occasionally in pig breeding.

The term "false line" was introduced by N. A. Kravchenko. Such a line is formed in cases where there are no very valuable producers in the herd, but there are outstanding queens. At the same time, by successive mating in several generations of valuable queens with random sires, the heredity is fixed not of sires, but of queens, under the influence of which the characteristics of this group of animals are created.

The line breeding method involves the creation, maintenance and use of stud lines.

The main purpose of line breeding is to preserve the hereditary qualities of the ancestor, to enrich the line with new specific properties that are promising for use in the breeding process. The special value of linear animals lies in their ability to transmit that specific genetic information for a given line, which determines the manifestation in the offspring of the unique qualities and properties characteristic of animals of this line.

The organization of line breeding can be conditionally divided into three main stages: line establishment; line management; implementation of interline crosses.

I. The laying of the line always begins with the choice of the ancestor, the so-called bull-leader, whose breeding qualities must be fixed in the offspring. A new line can be laid both at the very beginning of the creation of the breed, and in the process of its improvement. In both cases, the ancestor of the line must be identified or obtained by a certain combination of selection and selection, which would not only possess a complex of desirable qualities, but also stably pass them on to offspring. This property of animals in the domestic zootechnical literature is called prepotency.

II. At the second stage, when the ancestor of the line has already been determined, the main task of the breeder is to preserve and consolidate the breeding qualities of this ancestor in the offspring. To do this, queens are selected for it, similar in manifestation of those signs that are specific to the line being created. Often, at this stage of the breeding process, related queens (daughters, granddaughters, sisters, half-sisters, etc.) are selected for mating with the ancestor in order to consolidate the hereditary features characteristic of the created line in the offspring. Related matings (inbreeding) must necessarily be accompanied by the most intensive culling of offspring, since this type of mating often leads to the manifestation of inbreeding depression, which is expressed in the appearance of deformities, reduced viability, deterioration in reproductive ability and other negative consequences in the daughter generation.

In the future, to consolidate the hereditary basis, the line is drawn, mainly using homogeneous (homogeneous, that is, with approximately the same manifestation of desirable traits in both parental forms) selection, allowing inbreeding only to a distant and moderate degree. In this regard, for the effective maintenance of the line, the selection of queens for mating to the successors of the lines is of great importance. They must have significant advantages over their peers in specific qualities, in the direction of which they improve the line. In addition, they can carry other valuable qualities, thereby complementing and enriching the line with new properties and characteristics. This makes it possible to obtain offspring even more valuable than the ancestor of the line, which, in turn, should contribute to the overall progress of the line in relation to the improvement of the whole breed.

It is believed that when maintaining a line, one should strive to maintain the uniformity of the animals included in its composition. This means that within the breed, the lines should be specific in terms of the severity of economically useful traits, that is, with good and even in some cases mediocre indicators of some traits, the line should carry the genetic basis for a significant advantage of the offspring in other qualities. For example, in dairy cattle breeding, one line can be specialized in abundant milk content, the second - in fat and protein milk, the third - in the strength of the constitution, the fourth - in the technological properties of the udder, and so on. The more its orientation and advantage over other animals of the breed are expressed in the line, the more stable, consolidated and more valuable the line will be in terms of breeding.

Within the limits of the breed to be bred, there should be differences between the lines with their high level of specialization, providing greater plasticity of the breed with its further improvement.

The advantage of animals belonging to a particular line, according to specific economically useful traits, is achieved through selection and selection systems aimed at maintaining and developing these given qualities of the line over many generations.

Each of the successors of the lines, having a common genetic similarity with the ancestor, must also have individual characteristics that distinguish him from the ancestor and from his other descendants. The selection to the successor of the line of queens, also differing in their individual characteristics, leads to the production of offspring, which differs in their qualities from the offspring of other successors of the lines. In addition, at certain stages of line improvement, leading manufacturers stand out in it, who become the founders of line branches. In the future, the branches of the lines are bred in isolation and as a result, independent structural units of these lines are formed.

According to adherents of linear breeding, in cattle breeding, for successful work in the breed to improve it, there must be at least 10-15 lines, and in widespread populations - even more.

III. Along with the creation of the genetic differentiation of the breed, its multi-linear structure can be used to organize a system of selections that make it possible to avoid closely related matings with a certain degree of reliability. Such a system is called rotation, or line crosses.

Crosses of lines - a system of mating of animals belonging to different lines. In the implementation of interline crosses, the resources available in the breed are used more fully. It is believed that the valuable qualities of one line, complementing the qualities of another, enrich in their combination the heredity of the offspring obtained by interline crosses. In addition, interline crosses contribute to a rapid increase in productivity and improvement of other economically useful traits of animals. They also have a formative value, giving rise to new valuable lines. In this regard, the question arises: how long should the line exist in order to retain all those useful properties that were planned when it was laid? In the mid-80s of the last century, a broad discussion was launched on this issue. A number of scientists and breeders-practitioners argued that the most effective system of maintaining "short lines" containing no more than 5-7 generations of producers, after which the line should be transformed into a new structural unit with a new ancestor. Other experts argued that the useful qualities of lines can be preserved in 10 generations of animals or more. Until now, modern zootechnical science has not given an unambiguous answer to this question. Indeed, any array of animals (including a line) can progress in one direction or another for an almost infinitely long time, provided a carefully organized selection system. As a matter of fact, the line loses its value only when bulls-improvers are not revealed in any generation, that is, the line becomes uncompetitive. And this can happen at any stage of its development.

Line breeding and interline mating are closely related. Usually the best results are obtained when well-selected, consolidated lines are involved in the crosses.

In the practice of breeding dairy cattle along lines, there are a number of cross-country schemes, in which, according to the authors, the likelihood of negative consequences of related matings is excluded.

It should be noted that such a system of line crosses makes it possible to avoid spontaneous inbreeding in commercial farms if the bulls selected for insemination are obtained on the basis of intraline breeding. Otherwise, a massive occurrence of spontaneous (unplanned) inbreeding through the ancestors of producers from the maternal side of the pedigree is possible, which was convincingly proved in their studies by L. K. Ernst, Yu. N. Grigoriev and S. N. Kharitonov (1983).

1.2 Inbreeding

We call inbreeding the mating of animals that are much more closely related to each other than all individuals of a relatively large population on average, such as a breed. We propose to consider mating as inbreeding when the coefficient of relatedness between parental pairs is at least 0.1. Thus, the mating of full cousins with a sister should be considered as inbreeding. Mating cousins with a sister of the same parent will not be inbreeding. A distinction must be made between "moderate inbreeding" when the coefficient of relatedness is less than 0.25, and "close inbreeding" when the coefficient is at least 0.25, which corresponds to the relationship between half-sisters and half-brothers or cousins of both parents. The most intense form of inbreeding is the mating of full brothers with sisters or parents with offspring, that is, incest. Otherwise, the following forms of inbreeding are distinguished:

a) linear inbreeding - inbreeding carried out over several generations in order to obtain inbred lines. The coefficient of inbreeding within the inbred line must be at least 0.375, that is, correspond at least to the mating of full brothers and sisters up to the second generation;

b) breeding by groups - the population is divided into groups, between which for many generations there is almost no exchange of breeding animals. If these groups are small and a certain breeding selection is carried out within them, then they gradually differentiate according to their genetic composition. In many artificial insemination associations in Sweden, when raising bulls, they try to use this method of group breeding in order to subsequently use these bulls on a large body of cattle in rotational crossing and thus obtain productive animals without the risk of inbreeding;

c) line breeding - moderate inbreeding is used when the concentration of genes of a certain male or female ancestor in a line is necessary, for example, mating of a grandfather with a granddaughter or a father with a daughter. This form of inbreeding is often practiced in Anglo-Saxon countries.

1.3 Outbreeding

In outbreeding, mated animals belong to genetically different groups (group crossing) or inbred lines (linear crossing) within the same breed; the relationship between them is less than the average relationship between animals randomly selected from the population

1.4 Crossbreeding

Crossing is understood as a system of mating of animals belonging to different breeds, as a rule, unrelated.

When crossing breeds, in most cases two goals are pursued.

1. The best animals from the parental breeds are used to create a offspring generation that is superior in phenotypic manifestations of a number of traits to the average values of these traits in the parental breeds as a result of the effect of heterosis. In this case, the breeder expects to maximize the phenotypic manifestation of the trait due to the effects of dominance and epistasis, which are difficult to count on in purebred cattle breeding.

2. Breeds are crossed that differ in breeding tasks and the severity of certain traits to create a new breed that combines the best characteristics of the original (parent) breeds. In this case, crossbreeding is practiced mainly to exploit differences in additive genetic effects in the parent breeds; the phenomenon of heterosis is already of secondary importance.

Obviously, when different breeds are crossed, new genes are not formed and the frequency of occurrence of specific genes in the offspring does not change in comparison with the parent breeds. However, at the same time, new genotypes are created in hybrids that have genes from both paternal and maternal breeds.

Topcross - mating of animals of a certain inbred line, usually males, with unrelated, non-inbred females.

Absorption cross. In absorption crossbreeding, the resulting crossbreeds are crossed in a number of generations with the producers of the same parental breed, so that the genes of one breed are gradually replaced.

Ennobling (introductory) crossbreeding consists in the fact that genes are introduced into a given breed by crossing with an appropriate number of individuals of another breed in order to improve some of its qualities, but without a significant change in the breed.

Breed-forming (reproductive) crossing. By crossing two or more breeds, crossbreeds are obtained, which are then grown and bred "in themselves". Many new breeds have been bred in this way.

Industrial crossing. Crossbreeding of several breeds with each other to obtain crossbreeds of the first generation as use animals is called industrial. This method of crossing was generated by the practice of animal husbandry for the use of crossbreeds of the first generation with pronounced heterosis.

Variable cross. In terms of its tasks, variable crossing is similar to industrial crossing and has the main goal - to maximize the valuable features of crossbreeds of the first generation. In contrast to industrial crossbreeding, part of the queens is left for the tribe in order to get several more generations of animals from them. In each generation, the manufacturer changes. Crossbred queens are mated with sires of a breed that is unrelated to the breed of their fathers.

1.5 Hybridization

Animal crossing is called hybridization. different types. The resulting offspring are called hybrids. Hybridization as a breeding method also includes the crossing of hybrids with hybrids of different and identical origin. The main task of hybridization is the involvement of new valuable wild and semi-wild forms of animals into the material culture of man. Depending on the ability or inability of hybrids to produce offspring, a distinction is made between hybridization, which is widespread and produces useful animals (for example, mules in the past), and hybridization, which is used to create new breeds and types of animals.

Interspecific hybridization. The most important difference between species is the lack of reproductive succession, as a result of which they either cannot produce offspring at all, or their hybrid offspring is completely sterile. From complete non-crossing to more or less severe fertility disorders, there are all possible transitions.

In Canada, extensive experiments were carried out on crossing buffalo (American bison) with domestic large cattle(Aberdeen Angus and Hereford breeds) in order to breed a new species. The mating of a bull with a female bison gave a normal percentage of fertilization, and the development of the fetus proceeded generally without disturbance. However, more female than male hybrids were born, indicating a relatively high embryonic mortality among males. The females were fertile, but normally developed spermatozoa could not be found in the semen of the males.

After mating a bison with a domestic cow, the fetus is usually aborted. In Tibet, the yak has been crossed with common domestic cattle, and there are reports that a new type of cattle is now being raised from the resulting hybrid offspring. Hybrids showed distinct heterosis, but only females are fertile in the offspring. Only after two backcrosses with ordinary livestock can fertile males be obtained. Zebu and common domestic cattle can interbreed indefinitely and produce fertile offspring. Therefore, many authors consider them not as two different species, but as subspecies within one species.

2. Selection and breeding work as a method of increasing the potential of productivity and breeding value of animals

The basis for the selection of livestock of a particular breed is the data obtained by breeders of farms or the state breeding service when assessing the productivity of each animal in the herd. This event (bonitation) is held annually.

Over the past 2-3 years, in cattle breeding, the countries have switched to new form accounting for the productivity of cows, which is performed by independent experts or control - assistants.

In Russia, the main breeding traits are: milk yield and milk fat production, taking into account which science-based livestock feeding is organized.

In a number of countries with highly productive dairy cattle breeding, milk fat and protein products are used as the main breeding traits. For example: in Hungary they use milk fat or protein products, while in the Netherlands and the USA they use only protein.

The reproductive qualities of cows are characterized by the results of insemination and calving, which are of great economic importance. Accounting for mating, calving, launching cows, their incidence, lifelong productivity are the only sources of information for the diagnosis and reduction of infertility.

In Russia every year, about 15% of dairy cows are not pregnant. At the same time, about half of them pose a danger to the reproduction of the main part of the herd, as they are the spreaders of diseases of the reproductive system.

In the presence of proper accounting, good organization of the work of the veterinary service and insemination specialists, it is necessary to strive to achieve optimal reproduction rates in the dairy herd: at least 70% of cows should become pregnant after 1 insemination; for one fruitful, with double insemination, no more than 2.6 doses of semen should be spent, and with a single insemination - 1.3 doses of semen; the interval between calving should average no more than 380 days.

In implementing these requirements great importance has an assessment of bulls by the quality of fertility, which must be more strictly determined when evaluating them by the quality of the offspring.

In recent years, when evaluating sires, the indicator of inheritance or small pregnancy has become of particular importance, which contributes to an easier calving. The importance of this indicator increases when selecting bulls for heifers, as well as when crossing queens with producers of larger breeds.

Accounting for the lifetime productivity and use of each individual cow is of great economic importance. Accounting of this kind includes: individual number of the animal; lactation productivity; records of mating, calving, diseases, veterinary care at calving.

The heritability of the life expectancy of cows is low, however, there are significant differences in this indicator in the offspring of cows of individual bulls. Therefore, the life span of cows can be extended by using certain, well-chosen sires and by improving the conditions of keeping, feeding during the period of obtaining high productivity from them.

In recent years, the selection of dairy cattle began to attach importance to the exterior of animals. It is well known that animals with a good conformation are less likely to be culled due to injuries and diseases of the udder, limbs, such animals have less difficult calving, they are able to eat more feed necessary to ensure high milk yields or live weight gains. Evaluation of the exterior of cows and sires since 1996 is planned to be carried out on a 100-point scale, and bulls also on a linear assessment of body type, at least 30 of their daughters.

In order to make progress in improving dairy cattle, there should be a breeding breeding program, which is based on such sections as: setting a specific goal for breeding a breed or herd for productivity, body type, longevity, absence of hereditary defects; analysis state of the art breeds or herds; the direction of breeding animals to achieve the goal of breeding.

The basis of any program are breeding methods (pure-breeding, crossbreeding), as well as the principles of selecting animals that will become parents for the next generations.

For the purposes of animal selection, the following sources of information are used: individual indicators productivity and body type; origin, pedigree analysis; offspring testing (this is the most desirable selection method, especially for such quantitative traits as milk, meat productivity and body type). It should be noted that this method is preferably used in combination, but not together, in the above sources of information.

In the practice of dairy cattle breeding, selection is carried out on the basis of three main methods of selection, as:

1. Selection for each individual trait. At the same time, the share of the trait is set by a certain level and selection (culling) criterion, but priority is given to a specific level of cow milk yield or live weight gain of replacement young animals, below which all individuals are culled, regardless of their quality for other traits.

2. Tandem selection - involves selection for one trait until its improvement is achieved. Then they proceed to the selection on the second basis, and later on the third. Tandem selection may improve one trait faster than other methods, but until this is achieved, other traits may deteriorate significantly.

3. Selection according to the selection index, which is the sum of points for an animal for each trait, depending on the level and significance. Selection on the basis of a breeding trait is considered to be preferable to the tandem method.

In modern breeding programs for breeding dairy cattle, milk protein is of particular importance. Numerous studies on milk protein variability across populations (breeds) show that there is a significant negative correlation between milk protein content and milk yield. This correlation becomes even more pronounced when there is intensive selection for milk yield.

It was revealed that the selection of cows according to the amount of milk yield leads to a gradual decrease in the content of fat and protein in milk. Simultaneous selection for milk yield and protein content reduces the possible progress of fat and protein production. Selection of cows for milk composition can lead to a decrease in milk yield, so it is preferable to select for fat and protein production in milk or for selection index.

However, the experience of many countries of the world testifies to the importance of breeding cows for milk protein, as this largely determines the technological properties of milk and its nutritional value.

Studies by a number of authors have shown that milk protein content is in a certain dependence on the breed (Yu.S. Izimov, N.G. Komarova, 1990; Yu.M. Kriventsov, G.V. Shcherbakova, 1991), the hereditary influence of the sire and polymorphism milk proteins (R. A. Khaertdinov, Afanasiev M. P., Gubaidullin E. S., 1997). These factors influence the quantitative content of the protein fraction in milk.

In a number of research institutes in Russia (VIZH, VNIIGRZH), such studies are carried out, and breeding stock is also tested at the same time, especially the daughters of bulls tested for offspring.

The selection of breeding bulls-producers has the predominant importance, with an increase in the genetic potential of a particular breed. A stud breeding program usually includes a series of steps: selection of dams. To do this, 2-3% are selected from the available highly productive cows, characterized by high sustainable milk productivity for 2 or more lactations, exceeding the breed standard for milk yield by 50%, by fat content in milk by 0.2%, having regular calving with an interval of not more than 380 days; strong constitution and exterior, well-developed udder with an index of at least 40%, milk flow rate of more than 1.5 kg / min, the shape of the udder should be cup-shaped or round, the distance from the udder to the floor is at least 50 cm; the father of the cow must be an improver in the productivity of his daughters.

The best bulls according to the results of the breeding evaluation of bulls (approximately 10% of the number of improvers) are selected as fathers of bulls in order to obtain 15-20 descendant bulls from one outstanding bull. To obtain a new generation of bulls, you can use the sperm of imported producers that meet the requirements for bull fathers. When selecting bulls for cows selected as mothers (target selection), it is necessary to take into account the structure of genetic complexes and not seek to greatly reduce the number of bulls used, as this can lead to a decrease in genetic variability.

Selected for further breeding use, bull-producers are grown and evaluated by the intensity of growth and the ability to produce the required amount of high-quality sperm and test it for suitability for deep cooling. Realization of the best bulls to stations for artificial insemination of animals or breeding associations, where they are evaluated by the quality of the offspring.

The effectiveness of selection and breeding work is closely related to the reliability of data on the origin of animals, confirmed by immunogenetic control. It is desirable to evaluate bulls by the quality of offspring in breeding farms that agree to inseminate a certain part of cows and heifers with the sperm of young bulls and monitor their productivity.

Under the optimal variant, 20% of the livestock on the farm use the sperm of young bulls, and 80% use improver bulls. When assessing offspring, all economically important indicators (productive, exterior, technological) are used. At the same time, it is desirable that the ranks between bulls by breeding value are determined on the basis of the data of the entire population included in the assessment, that is, according to the generally accepted method of calculating the BLAP. Evaluated bulls are placed in a ranking row in accordance with their estimates. This means that the future daughters of a bull that has received the highest rating (rank) should, on average, have higher milk yields, give milk with a high fat content or milk protein content, have a better conformation (according to a linear assessment) than the daughters of a sire with a lower rank.

Evaluation by progeny is very expensive and selection requires the greatest expense. So, in the USA and other European countries, out of every 10 bulls, according to the results of the evaluation by offspring, 9 are culled, which is very expensive.

In recent years, a group of black-and-white breeds of cattle, and especially Holstein, has become widespread in the world due to high milk productivity, adaptability to highly industrial milk production, and also quite satisfactory meat qualities.

The direction of selection of black-and-white cattle in countries where it is widespread has a certain difference, which affects the formation of its type.

Significant widespread breeding of black-and-white cattle in the USA and Europe had a noticeable impact on its breeding in Russia, where breeding work is aimed at creating new types of black-and-white cattle, the genetic basis of which will be black-and-white cattle breeds in Russia, Europe, and the USA. and Canada (Lebedev M.M., Dmitriev N.G., Prokhorenko P.N., 1976; Bich A.I., Saxa E.I., 1987; et al., 1985). So, over the past 20-30 years, in breeding for the improvement of black-and-white cattle in Russia, two stages can be clearly defined - 30-60 years, when bulls of the East Frisian and Dutch black-and-white cattle breeds were widely used, 70-80 and subsequent years - Holsteins from the USA, Canada, as well as producers of black-and-white cattle from Germany, Denmark, Great Britain. In Russia, as well as in many European countries, the Holstein breed is used to improve domestic dairy breeds of cattle, which has a positive effect on increasing milk yield, yield of milk fat and protein per lactation, improving the shape and functional properties of the udder, as well as on the lactation curve. , which is more even and smooth than that of cows of domestic dairy breeds.

2.1 Sexual maturity and use per tribe

Puberty occurs in bulls and heifers at 7-9 months of age. In precocious animals, the first signs of sexual desire appear earlier than this period, especially with intensive feeding during the growth period. However, at this age, animals cannot yet be used for breeding, because their physical development lags behind. Bulls are allowed to mate for the first time at the age of 1-1.5, and heifers - 2-3 years, depending on the precocity determined by the breed and on production and economic features. Bulls can be used on the farm up to 12-15 years old, cows - up to 15-18 years old. In exceptional cases, the terms of use, especially in cows, can be significantly extended, but in practice they are usually below the average age limits. For brown bulls that were slaughtered for either age or infertility, use ended at an average of 4.2 years. In bulls, this period is always shorter than in cows, but in areas with a significant use of artificial insemination, on average, it can be longer.

Hunting occurs in cows at any time of the year and is repeated normally after 3 weeks. However, for economic or production and technical reasons, calving is unevenly distributed throughout the year: the largest percentage usually occurs in late autumn and early spring. Average duration pregnancy varies depending on the precocity of the breed, between 278 and 291 days, and the average interval between calving is 12-14 months, with significant individual deviations both downward and upward. The duration of pregnancy in domestic buffalo is, on average, 315 days, with fluctuations of 300-330 days.

In cattle breeding, manual mating is usually used, which allows not only to take into account the date of coverage and paternal origin, but also to regulate the sexual load of the bull. Normally, with manual mating, there are 40-60 cows for one 1-12-year-old bull, 60-90 for a 1-2-year-old bull, and 90-120 for an older bull. With a short breeding season, these figures should be reduced accordingly.

In free mating, a relatively larger number of bulls should be used, since this cannot avoid multiple coverings and short-term sexual exhaustion of the animals. In dairy cattle breeding, instead of natural mating, artificial insemination is used. By diluting the seed and preserving it, the number of offspring of one bull can be increased many times over. From the point of view of breeding technique, this ensures an earlier check of bulls by offspring, a better use of proven bulls and the implementation of such selection systems that are difficult in case of natural mating and a short period of economic use of animals.

2.2 Selection of animals per tribe

The selection of breeding animals is an ongoing process that begins shortly after birth and is regulated by two factors. The first is the conclusion of the livestock breeder on the suitability and timing of the breeding use of this animal, the second is the natural waste of animals due to diseases, accidents and infertility. Both of these factors (natural waste and culling) determine the specific age composition of each given population of animals. By purposefully changing conditions external environment and reducing natural waste can increase the influence of the breeder to improve the quality of the herd.

selection indicators. The appearance of an animal and its productivity determine the degree of realization of its genotype in a given environment. However, its value as a breeding animal is determined by the extent to which its individual indicators will be inherited by offspring. For this purpose, the following means are used: 1) evaluation by ancestors, brothers and sisters; 2) evaluation by exterior and shown productivity; 3) assessment of the quality and productivity of offspring. By the nature of the traits taken into account and their heritability in the narrow and broad sense of the word, it is possible to determine the breeding value of an animal with varying degrees of reliability. Depending on the direction of use, the proportion of these assessment methods varies.

2.3 Estimation of provenance

Economic considerations, the availability and condition of premises for livestock and forage require, in most cases, the earliest possible culling of animals unsuitable for breeding. At an early age, it is possible to determine the breeding value of animals only by the quality and productivity of parents and more distant ancestors, as well as brothers and sisters. External examination the calf can only be determined whether it has physical defects or other noticeable defects. The reliability of ancestral performance measures for determining the breeding value of an animal is relatively low compared to its self-reported performance. The indicators of the individual itself serve as the basis for comparison.

As the coefficients show, taking into account the productivity of ancestors located further than the third row of the pedigree will hardly improve the assessment of breeding qualities much. The value of this method lies primarily in the fact that it allows you to determine the role of family ties. To determine the breeding value of an animal in relation to traits characterized by high heritability, that is, weakly influenced by environmental factors, more reliable data can be obtained. absolute indicators from ancestral productivity data. For factors that are heavily influenced by the environment, this method is less reliable. However, the relative reliability of this method in comparison with the assessment based on the indicators of the animal's own productivity will not be higher, and for some combinations of ancestors, even lower. For those traits that can be assessed at an early age of the animal, such as body type (as the basis of performance) or the intensity of growth and development of muscles (as the basis of meat productivity), the assessment of origin is of less importance. In dairy cattle breeding, the first data on productivity can be obtained in cows at the age of 3-4 years, and in a bull 2-3 years later, until it is evaluated by the indicators of daughters. Here, it is necessary to resolve the issue of the future breeding use of the animal as early as possible, since calves of specific dairy breeds are less suitable for growing for meat. The basis for evaluation here can only be the indicators of ancestors, where, along with their productivity, one must also take into account their physical development (udder, limbs), the nature of the course of sexual functions, health status and life expectancy. As an example of fully proven productivity according to the recorded productivity of ancestors, we present data from the breeding certificate of the bull Meteora HB No. 98224.

With data on the productivity of the mother, mother, mother and father, as well as verified offspring male ancestors (father and grandfather), the breeding value of a bull can be judged with approximately the same reliability as the results of testing the productivity of eight daughters of this bull with completed first lactation.

If there are no data on the testing of the offspring of the father, then the indicators of the productivity of the mother and grandmothers will tell us no more about the breeding value of a given animal than the indicators of its own productivity.

Testing a bull by offspring makes it possible to judge the breeding value of males based on the average productivity of half-sisters (father's daughters).

An estimate for full sisters, if there are an average of 2-3 heifers per cow, is practically not taken into account. Comparisons between half-sisters will be more reliable than mother-grandmother performance, provided that more than 10 half-sisters have performance data.

With a closed stud book, the origin of the animal is determined only once, when it is necessary to obtain information about this animal in order to enter it in the stud book. In many breeding areas, when selecting for a tribe and state approval of producers, there are minimum requirements for the quality and productivity of their parents and grandparents. How deeply knowledge of the pedigree is necessary when choosing one or another animal for a tribe is left to the breeder himself to decide. When analyzing a pedigree, along with regressive relationships between ancestors and descendants, the degree of kinship and inbreeding is also taken into account.

2.4 Evaluation of the physique of the animal according to its individual productivity

Body type score is the basis for working cattle breeding. The working qualities of animals are determined by their size, live weight, development of muscles and limbs, that is, those features that are equally well expressed in both male and female individuals. In beef cattle, height, meatiness, degree of obesity and the content of low-value parts (head, limbs) in the carcass are evaluated by size and body type. On the contrary, characteristics such as the percentage of individual carcass pieces, marbling and meat quality, meat/fat ratio can only be taken into account by analyzing the progeny of the evaluated breeding animals.

In dairy cattle breeding, body type is relatively less important. It is limited in essence to those features that must be taken into account from the point of view of the practical suitability of the animal in given conditions of detention, for example, strength and setting of the limbs. After the first calving, it is already possible to evaluate the udder by its volume, richness in glandular tissue, location and shape of the quarters and teats. The exterior as an indicator of milkiness is given little importance. By selection for body type and shape, milk production can only be slightly increased. Due to the weak genetic relationship between body type and productivity in specific dairy breeds, breeding assessment of them at a young age is very unreliable. Despite such a low genetic correlation, there are known market requirements for the type of dairy cattle, and therefore this trait is accordingly taken into account in the selection.

When breeding cattle of a combined dairy and meat direction, special importance is attached to the assessment of the exterior, since only in this way can one obtain the type of animals desired for the farm. At the same time, in addition to the development of the udder, meat is evaluated first of all. It is assumed that cattle of the combined direction correspond more to the genetic average form than specific dairy or beef cattle, and therefore there is a constant tendency for animals to shift towards one or the other of these directions. Therefore, in breeding selection for the desired balance of the combination of traits, it is necessary to correct them, which is carried out by evaluating the type and conformation.

Selection on the basis of individual productivity will always be more effective also in relation to traits with low heritability. Therefore, in dairy and dairy-beef cattle breeding, it is necessary to keep a systematic record of productivity. The effective productivity of an animal is determined by a number of external factors, such as age, the onset of a new pregnancy, the length of the previous dry period, the lactation initiation season, the frequency of milking, and the conditions of feeding and housing during lactation. All these factors hide the true makings of productivity.

With age (in the period from the first to the fourth or sixth lactation), productivity also increases, which is associated with physical development and distributing. After reaching the maximum productivity, a gradual decline begins. The course of this age-related productivity curve depends on early maturity. The milkfat content is highest in the first lactation and remains relatively stable in subsequent years if there were no disturbances in the form of diseases and the like. The early onset of a new pregnancy shortens the lactation period and causes a faster decrease in daily milk yield. However, this decrease in milk yield is more than offset by more frequent calving and a greater number of calves during their lifetime. The calving season and the beginning of lactation deserve deep attention. In the temperate latitudes of the northern hemisphere, the most favorable calving dates are early November - late March, because with the beginning of spring grazing, the tendency to reduce daily milk yield does not appear due to a new rise in productivity. On the contrary, summer calving in July and August negatively affects lactation, because its onset coincides with the drying of the herbage and the transition to winter feeding, which also reduces the daily milk yield if the diet is not reinforced with concentrated feed. Switching to grazing next spring can no longer increase the level of milk production. Spring and autumn calvings occupy an intermediate position in terms of their influence on productivity. In British Friesian cattle, the average milk production, depending on the time of calving, is characterized by the following indicators (see Table 1)

Table 1 - Average milk production depending on the time of calving.

Even when concentrated additives are given during the pasture period and the content of roughage in the winter diet is low, summer calving reduces lactation productivity by an average of 10% compared to winter ones. If animals are fed mainly on-farm roughage, this difference is much higher.

By adjusting for calving age, lactation duration, and so on, better comparability of performance between different animals can be achieved. Adjustments are needed when the averages of a group of animals and a larger number of lactations are compared. In relation to one individual, such corrections, on the contrary, lead to significant errors. In this case, it is recommended to compare the performance of one individual with the average performance of herd peers or other animals kept at the same feeding level.

The fat content in milk can vary significantly from one milking to another, but on average for the entire lactation it depends less on external factors than milk yield, which is confirmed by a higher heritability index. This gives better opportunities for comparing individual animals and lactation. Due to the fact that in breeding selection it is necessary to take into account both the amount of milk and its composition, for the convenience of calculating milk yields are reduced to a standard four percent milk. Depending on whether the milk is used directly for consumption or processed into butter and dairy products, the main emphasis in breeding is on the rich or fat milk content of breeding animals and the composition of the milk.

Milk yield for lactation, mainly for the first, is taken as the basis for assessing milk and fat content. It is characterized by higher rates of heritability than the second or third, as its value is not yet affected by factors such as the duration of the previous dry period, etc. With regard to the breeds of the combined direction, which have an average precocity, the issue of breeding use is resolved only after the third lactation, because the differentiation of productivity indicators for the first lactation cannot be considered satisfactory, and the second lactation, as experience shows, is not indicative. The influence of random variations in housing conditions has less effect on the average productivity indicator, which is derived from several lactations. In this case, we can also evaluate the regularity of sexual functions. However, these indicators can be used as the basis for selection only at a more mature age of the cow and will be of decisive importance in the evaluation of her sons.

Indicators of annual productivity, which are preferred from an organizational and economic point of view, cannot be taken as the basis for selection, since here the interval between calving and the duration of the dry period act as additional factors variability. For this reason, the degree of heritability of milk production by annual milk yield is in most cases lower than by milk yield per lactation, standardized by the duration of lactation. In connection with the shift in the calving period from one calving to the next, the annual milk yield will cover segments of one or two successive lactations that are unequal in terms of productivity and vary greatly from year to year.

When assessing the productive capacity of a cow, that is, its ability to convert feed energy into milk energy, it is necessary to take into account its live weight. With an increase in live weight, as a rule, milk yield also increases; however, this increase is not proportional, therefore, per unit weight, it actually decreases.

Evaluation of meat productivity on a live animal is limited to weighing and measuring at different ages, as well as determining feed consumption during the fattening period. These data are supplemented by a subjective assessment of the type, meatiness and degree of fatness. By weight and feed consumption, you can determine the weight gain and feed payment. Factors such as differences in birth and weaning weights, as well as gains due to sex, calving season and maternal age, should be taken into account in the assessment. Selection for these traits important for meat productivity should be effective, especially since they can be directly identified in animals of both sexes.

2.5 Fertility and vitality

Regular calving increases the profitability of the farm and allows for a more rigorous selection of animals. The regularity of calving can be determined by the number of coverings per pregnancy and the length of the period between calving. The degree of heritability and repeatability of this indicator is, according to studies, 0-0.2. The reason for these negligible numerical values may be the fact that the research data are based on differences between animals that themselves have normal fecundity; all infertile individuals and those in which reproductive functions are impaired are already culled during selection. Therefore, differences in the number of covers per pregnancy and in the length of the period between calving are largely due to environmental factors. Creating optimal conditions for growing, feeding and keeping, as well as conditions for revealing full productivity, contributes to a faster and more successful improvement in the fertility of animals. The fertility and viability of animals can practically be taken into account only on the basis of origin, that is, by selecting offspring from older parents, whose breeding value is already known.

When selecting breeding animals, regardless of the direction of use, it is necessary to simultaneously take into account several signs, for example, body type and constitution, and the productivity shown by the animal. All considered characteristics can be combined into one index, which expresses the breeding value. The application of this method in practice encounters many difficulties that arise because there are no objective grounds for evaluating individual links in terms of their economic significance and in terms of phenotypic and genetic correlations between various traits. In addition, genetic correlations can also be changed as a result of selection. With combined breeding direction, after an initial assessment of the individual components (traits) of such an index equation, deviations from the desired direction of breeding may occur, and these deviations will need to be corrected again. Therefore, taking into account the slow change of generations, here they prefer to adhere to the lower limits of selection. To this end, the animals entered in the studbook are subject to a number of minimum requirements regarding the productivity of their ancestors, health, type and physique, and later - individual productivity. Such a system of requirements contributes to the fact that animals with an outstanding development of one, but insufficient expression of another trait will not be selected for the tribe, although in the hands of an experienced breeder they can be successfully, albeit with a certain risk, used for the tribe. In breeding areas dominated by small and medium-sized farms, selection at the lower selection limit is more reliable and contributes to a more uniform, although perhaps somewhat slower development of the breed as a whole.

2.6 Progeny tests

In practice, tests of the offspring of sires cover the type, body type and constitution of animals, milk and milk fat content, meat productivity and slaughter qualities. Evaluation of offspring by type, build and constitution can be started at an early age and repeated from year to year, until, for example, the development of the udder is assessed in daughters (by the nature of lactation). Evaluation by exterior makes it possible to judge the features of the inheritance of outstanding qualities and vices, live weight, the nature of growth and precocity, that is, those traits on the basis of which it is planned to select parental pairs (especially when breeding for combined traits), and also evaluates the productivity of the offspring. In this way, it is possible to timely identify and discard those sires who, for example, inherit large defects in body constitution and limb placement. Evaluation of offspring occurs either in the herd itself or on broods. In the first case, there is the advantage that all offspring or purely randomly selected animals can be evaluated with a simultaneous assessment of the feeding conditions and the housing and quality of the cows of the herd. Here, however, there can be no intercomparison, and, therefore, it is difficult to assess, first of all, the uniformity (evenness) of the population. This property can be correctly assessed only on broods, since there is a guarantee that not only the best offspring are shown there. With the general maintenance of producers, such broods provide a lot of useful information to animal breeders-specialists. A particular problem in progeny testing is testing for recessive lethal factors. As for the mating of a father with daughters, there seem to be no big obstacles here; however, depending on the circumstances, complex forms of inheritance must be reckoned with. The fact is that special conditions intrauterine development can lead to the appearance of the same kind of defects, which are caused by lethal factors. For the most part, it is difficult to determine whether in each individual case we are talking about a genetically determined violation of intrauterine development or a consequence of the influence of environmental factors. The very first appearance of offspring with defects, especially in fathers who have shown themselves to be "improvers" of productivity, puts the owner in front of the need to determine how great the risk is in the further use of this sire on the tribe. In order to positively resolve the issue of the hereditary conditionality of these defects, it is necessary to carefully study and exclude the possibility of environmental influences. To test for milk and fat content, groups of daughters of the tested bulls are placed at special stations created according to the Danish model, or their productivity is taken into account directly in the herd. On the basis of the average milk yield of daughters obtained at control stations, producers are divided into classes, and along with the determination of milk yield and fat content of milk, other studies can be carried out here regarding general development, feed payment, ease of production, udder quarter capacity, and so on, which is impossible to carry out. under normal economic conditions. These data are a valuable addition to the breeding certificate of bulls. The reliability of estimating sires at each individual station and within all these stations, as well as in comparison with the estimation of offspring in the herd, is determined by the selection of control groups and the possibility of genotype-environment interaction. In breeding areas with equalized conditions for feeding and keeping, the latter is not essential.

To determine the breeding value based on the productivity of the Daughters in the herd, in addition to the average indicators of the daughters, the results of the mother-daughter comparison are also used. Since the evaluation takes into account the number of daughters, the reliability and comparability of the calculated breeding values depend primarily on the extent to which it was possible to level differences in the conditions under which groups of daughters or daughters and mothers showed their productivity. Therefore, the choice of average indicators for comparison is of greater importance (average for the herd, partnership, district, peer average, and so on.). It is hardly possible to give any general recommendations here, since depending on the organization of breeding work, the characteristics and type of use of bulls, the size of the herds, natural and economic conditions, in each individual case a special approach is required, so that as little as possible is introduced. adjustments for effective productivity. Consideration of mothers is recommended only when it is necessary to take into account genetic differences between breeding herds where compared sires were used. Between the first lactation of the daughter and the next lactation of the mother, at least 2-3 years pass, during which the conditions in the herd can change significantly, depending on natural conditions and grass growth. Therefore, where possible, correction for this factor should be omitted and thus avoid another source of error.

Taking into account the heritability of milk productivity and milk fat production when assessing offspring reduces the index value from the phenotypic plane to the genotypic plane and, therefore, performs the function of a reliability factor. If in the equation of the index of breeding value for all bulls the same value of the indicator is taken, then their rank sequence remains the same as in the assessment without taking this indicator into account. In order to evaluate the sire as early as possible, they use the data of short-term records of offspring productivity. This can be productivity for the first 60, 100 or 180 days of lactation. These data make it possible to involuntarily classify bulls according to the precocity of their daughters. When taking into account productivity in less than 100 days, it is not possible to determine the constancy of daily milk yield with sufficient accuracy (or it is completely impossible), in addition, the month of calving may have a stronger effect on the results. If there are groups of daughters that differ greatly in their average milk yields, then such an early assessment of sires from recorded short-term offspring production will provide valuable indications as to the intensity of their use until data on full lactations from a sufficient number of daughters are obtained.

To test meat productivity, it is necessary to put groups of offspring of 12-20 animals each for control fattening. Fattening is carried out at special stations, where standard feeding conditions are created and where, along with growth, feed payment can also be determined. It is expedient to put the young animals on fattening with a certain initial weight and fatten up to a certain final weight. The final weight is set depending on the precocity of the breed and the market requirements for meat quality. From the point of view of breeding technique, it is desirable that the control fattening be completed as soon as possible, but not before the differentiation of the individual growth process has ended. Males are also suitable for control fattening (castrated and non-castrated, depending on the age at slaughter), so that in breeds of the combined direction, both milk and meat productivity can be simultaneously assessed.

Slaughter should be carried out in large, centralized slaughterhouses, and along with the slaughter yield, the quality of the meat (maturity, marbling, ability to absorb water, color, etc.) and the proportion of the most valuable parts of the carcass should also be determined. You can evaluate these qualities on the part of the carcass, consisting of the back, lower back and middle costal part. Progeny beef testing for beef cattle and dual-use breeds has only recently begun and is in the process of being developed. These tests are complicated by the fact that meat productivity, as opposed to milk production, is made up of a number of components that are difficult to determine by conventional measurement. Nevertheless, it is possible to improve the payment for feed, slaughter yield and precocity of animals only by testing the offspring, because on a live animal only weight gain and payment for feed are determined as indicators of their own productivity. Their lethal qualities cannot be directly determined.

In order to accurately judge the breeding value of an individual in relation to traits with an average heritability, 10 descendants are required, and in relation to traits with a higher heritability, already 15 descendants. Therefore, it is advisable to test the progeny of cows of the main herd in the form of a brood of families with an assessment of fertility and longevity, as well as a systematic breeding renewal of the structure of smaller herds. On the other hand, in order to determine the breeding value of a bull with the same accuracy in relation to traits with higher heritability, not so many descendants are required as when we are dealing with traits that are heavily influenced by the environment. Therefore, smaller groups of offspring are put on control fattening than on tests for milk production.

Special mention should be made of the testing of mothers of sires under conditions of the same feeding and maintenance. Determination of feed payment, daily milk yield, fat and protein content and milk yield by udder quarters provided very accurate data for an objective assessment of these animals. Breeding-treated materials are used in the evaluation of the origin of the bulls, the test results here reflecting the response of the genotype as a whole to environmental conditions. In selection, on the contrary, only a part of the additive influences is of significant importance.

2.7 Breeding methods

Selection by origin, own productivity and productivity of the offspring of the best animals covers, as already mentioned, only the additive part of the variance. The phenomena of dominance and overdominance and the effect of gene interaction can only be used in certain mating systems. To what extent these phenomena influence the formation of economically important productivity traits can be judged by the differences in the heritability of these traits in the narrow and broad sense of the term. That part of the variability of milk productivity, which is due to the non-additive action of genes, is approximately 10%. In combinations of inbred lines with insignificant species-specific fecundity and a slow change of generations, it is practically not taken into account for economic reasons. In contrast, a high degree of relatedness and the resulting increased genotypic uniformity of the material can be maintained by breeding along lines. This method is used in purebred breeding of both dairy and beef cattle, with the least possible degree of inbreeding. When breeding beef cattle, the degree of inbreeding is usually somewhat higher, on the other hand, industrial crossing is more often used in large farms.

In breeds with a combined direction of use, when selecting parental pairs, they strive primarily to maintain the desired combination. In this regard, increased requirements are imposed on males in relation to those traits that leave much to be desired in the broodstock. Hence, here we are talking on the combination of the "equal to equal" mating system to preserve desirable traits and "unequal to unequal" mating, the purpose of which is to correct undesirable traits in offspring. This requires greater selection capacity among breeding producers. Therefore, when breeding breeds of the dual direction, a relatively larger number of males are used.

Only in large herds, to fix certain types, it is possible - for a limited time - to recommend the use of inbreeding, since for small farms, given the tendency to reduce viability and productivity as a result of inbreeding and the high cost of each animal, this would be associated with a great risk. As a breeding method, inbreeding undoubtedly played a greater role at the time of the emergence and formation of breeds than in their subsequent evolution, and only a very experienced breeder can take advantage of its advantages. Even in large herds, as can be seen from the structure of the pedigrees, after a period of inbreeding, sires purchased on the side of herds unrelated to the queens were always used to refresh the blood.

2.8 Maintaining stud books

Determining the breeding value in the selection and selection of parental pairs requires a deep knowledge of their origin, their own productivity and the productivity of their ancestors, full brothers and sisters, as well as knowledge of the quality of the offspring, and not only their own, but possibly as many animals of the same breed. Too small sizes do not allow individual closed herds to achieve the desired progress. Keeping zootechnical records is considered the task of livestock unions and departments for maintaining pedigree books, where livestock farms are attached either on a territorial basis, or depending on the breed of cattle bred. Proof of parentage requires mating control and registration and branding of newborn animals. In breeds with discontinuous coloration, various kinds of stencils are used for this, plucks are made on the ears or ear tags are put on, and the brand on the body or on the horns also survives. The animal is entered in the stud book either on the basis of proven parentage (closed stud book) or later at the age of sexual maturity based on conformation assessment or when minimum performance requirements are met. After the animal is recognized as fit for breeding, all calving dates, offspring and productivity begin to be recorded, and productivity tests are carried out either by special livestock organizations or by special testing stations. The processing and regular publication of zootechnical records allows livestock breeders to more carefully evaluate the animals of their herd. The more perfect and correct the assessment of the environmental conditions where the animals were grown and produced, the more reliable their breeding value will be determined based on the data taken into account. The level of feeding and housing determines to a greater or lesser extent the identification of the inclinations of the animal, therefore one of the most important tasks of the management and maintenance of stud books is to, after carefully studying the environmental conditions, establish appropriate average indicators for comparison and correction factors for effective productivity.

The introduction and spread of artificial insemination brought to life new forms of organization of breeding. The advantage of the new method is a faster check of the offspring of young bulls and the possibility of intensive breeding of valuable animals. Organizations in charge of artificial insemination are also involved in the repair of breeding bulls. Artificial insemination in itself is not a new breeding method. The increased use of producers through artificial insemination only leads to the intensification of all zootechnical measures usually taken in animal husbandry.

Therefore, careful and far-reaching animal husbandry planning is necessary for the successful application of artificial insemination.

3. Livestock breeding base in Russia

The basis of the livestock breeding base in Russia is: breeding plants, breeding reproducers, state-owned enterprises for breeding and artificial insemination of animals. Currently, breeding herds are being formed on personal farmsteads and in peasant farms, which can also have the status of breeding plants and breeding reproducers.

In breeding plants, the best part of the breed is concentrated, with which the most in-depth breeding work is carried out. The main tasks of breeding plants are as follows: improvement of the productive and breeding qualities of the breed being bred in accordance with its direction and specialization; improvement of existing and creation of new high-value factory types, lines and families with stable heredity; cultivation of producers of a certain linear affiliation for the acquisition of breeding enterprises and breeding farms; rearing of high quality breeding stock for own repair herds and replenishment of broodstocks of subsidiaries.

The main method of working with a herd in breeding plants is purebred breeding (with the highest form of breeding work - breeding along lines). When selecting animals for mating, moderate inbreeding is widely used here, not excluding in many cases unrelated mating. In the process of laying new factory types and lines provided for by the breeding plan, both line crosses and close inbreeding, and sometimes reproductive crossing, can be used.

The number of breeding plants for each breed and the breeding stock in them is determined based on the need to create their own breeding base in large natural economic zones and provide all breeding farms and breeding enterprises with repair producers. Herds of breeding plants should not be numerous. In dairy cattle breeding, it is most rational to have no more than 800-1200 cows. For each breeding plant, subsidiaries are determined, the number of livestock in which can be much larger, depending on their land area and the state of the forage base.

The herds of subsidiaries are completed with super-repair young stock and graded animals of the breeding plant. These farms work according to a single plan with the breeding plant. The concentration in one or several subsidiaries of animals related by their origin to the herd of the plant creates a genealogical structure similar to it and makes it possible to more effectively test producers for the quality of offspring, to identify the best genealogical combinations in line crosses, and to more widely search for new successful combinations. Consequently, the presence of subsidiaries, on the one hand, increases the efficiency of breeding plants, and on the other hand, they are reproducers of valuable breeding animals.

Tribal reproducers are specialized farms. They contain breeding animals, which are used to complete the composition of the producers of breeding enterprises serving commercial farms, and to replenish the breeding stock of these farms. The tasks of breeding reproducers are not only to breed valuable pedigree animals, but also to continuously improve their own herd. Breeding reproducers through the sale of their breeding products have an improving effect on the herds of commercial farms.

The main methods of working with the herd are purebred breeding, reproduction and further improvement of valuable lines and families, and effective crosses of lines. In those areas where breeding is carried out by crossing with improving breeds, breeding reproducers breed the most valuable crossbred stock.

In state enterprises for breeding and artificial insemination, the best part of the producers (bulls) is concentrated, which are recruited from breeding plants and partly from breeding reproducers through custom mating.

The breeding base of cattle breeding of the Russian Federation as of 01/01/2003 is shown in table 2

Table- 2. Breeding base of cattle breeding in Russia

The indicators of some breeding farms are given below.

3.1 The role of breeding enterprises (FGUP) in the development of animal husbandry

The intensification of the development of livestock industries is largely determined by the improvement of the breeding qualities of bred animals, the full use of the genetic potential of productivity and the strengthening of the material and technical base of breeding farms and breeding organizations.

Work with the breed is carried out in all categories of farms: breeding plants and breeding reproducers, breeding enterprises, commercial farms. It should be carried out on the basis of the developed long-term plans (main directions) and further generalized for the region and the country. Basic farms (breeding plants, breeding enterprises) for the reproduction of breeding material and consumer farms (commodity farms) should be identified.

Republic, region, region	Area	Farm name	On average for 2002-2004.
Republic, region, region	Area	Farm name	Average annual number of cows	Gross milk yield, l	Milk yield per forage cow, kg	Revenue from sold milk and dairy products, rub/c	Profit from products thousand rubles	Cost of goods sold, rub/c	Product price, rub/c	Profitability
12	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12
1	Novosibirsk region	Horde	CJSC BREEDING PLANT "IRMEN"	2369	17611	7433	153953	62625	311,7	554,8	68,6
2	Moscow region	DOMODEDOVSK	SHPK PZ "Barybino"	3187	21238	6664	147681	49343	252.9	505,2	50,2
3	GRYAZOVETSKY	CJSC BREEDING ZARYA	2654	19130	7208	131740	29426	237.2	552,7	28,8
4	Krasnodar region	DONSKOY	JSC "PLEMZAVOD IM. V. I. CHAPAEV»	2600	13707	5272	72159	33304	187.4	302,7	85,7
5	Krasnodar region	KANEVSKY	AAF BREEDING FARM "POBEDA"	2500	15192	6077	77036	20931	210.2	459.2	37,3
6	Vologda Region	VOLOGDA	KLH "PLEMZAVOD RODINA"	1603	11170	6966	76602	24977	247,4	500,2	48,4
7	Moscow region	ODINTSOVSKY	CJSC PLEMHOZ "NARO-OSANOVSKY"	1656	10421	6291	80745	20310	266.7	598,9	33.6
8	Krasnoyarsk region	KANSKY	JSC "PLEMZAVOD RED MAYAK"	1601	10479	6547	57890	28445	197.1	300,7	96,6
9	Moscow region	DOMODEDOVSK	SHPK-BREEDING FACILITY "RUS"	1515	9743	6433	68015	20061	258,2	546.2	41,8

Long-term plans (programs, main directions) should be developed for a long period of time (five, ten years), adjusted depending on the specific results of work, include new and exclude less relevant areas.

3.2 Federal State Unitary Enterprise Breeding Enterprise "Voronezh" of the Voronezh Region

The history of the breeding enterprise dates back to 1933, when the Voronezh State Simmental Cattle Breeding Center was established. Animals of this breed prevailed in the region, as they turned out to be the most adapted to local conditions. The local landowners, the owners of cheese factories, were satisfied with the productivity of the Simmentals, and therefore it was they who were preferred when purchasing breeding young animals of the 30s of the last century, the state breeding nursery created breeding farms and farms, contracted bulls, issued breeding certificates, organized an exhibition of animals.

Over the years, the network of state breeding stations expanded, linear work with the Simmental breed was laid, and a clear zootechnical account was debugged. However, when the industrial production of milk began, it turned out that simmentals, for all their merits, did not quite meet the new requirements. The breeders were not satisfied with the shape of the udder, the speed of milk flow, and so on.

To correct these shortcomings, it was necessary to Holsteinization of local cattle, which began in the 1970s. Moreover, the Voronezh residents chose for this not black-and-white Holsteins, like most Russian regions, but red-and-white Canadian selection.

Three basic farms were identified in the region, the task of which was to consolidate the obtained positive qualities of Holsteinized animals in two generations. At the same time, the selection of the best individuals according to economically useful traits was going on. This is how the new Voronezh Red-and-White breed was created, which was approved in 1998.

Among the authors of the new breed - former boss breeding enterprise Pyotr Ivanovich Praslov and his current employees: Nina Dmitrievna Smirnova, head of the methodological office, Vera Ilyinichna Gulik, chief livestock specialist for evaluating bulls.

In cows of the new breed, the size of the teats is close to ideal, and the completeness of milking is such that no milk is required. Farms that keep these animals receive at least 4 thousand kg of milk per cow. And at the breeding farm "Druzhba", where there are almost a thousand heads in the herd, in 2004 they milked 6407 kg each. Voronezh cattle have good fattening qualities and feed conversion.

Last year, the region for the first time reached the three thousandth milk yield. Above this indicator - the results of work with dairy herds of 160 farms. For Voronezh livestock breeders, this is a significant achievement, given that eight years ago the average productivity of cows here was 1662 kg.

The contribution of the breeding enterprise to the increase in milk yield is also significant. Now there are 42 bulls in Voronezhsky: 20 Simmentals and 22 Red-and-White breeds, which corresponds to the ratio of livestock breeds in the region. There is also a stock of semen for black-and-white cattle, which makes up only 1.7% of the breed composition.

In total, there are more than 4 million doses in the seed bank. The bull is culled as soon as the stock of semen from him reaches 35-40 thousand doses. Of course, this does not apply, for example, to the six-year-old Austrian improving bull Yura, brought to Voronezhskoye in 2002. He already has one-year-old offspring - very strong, viable. A year later, 600 Simmental heifers and six improver bulls for the breeding enterprise were delivered to the farms of the region from Austria.

But the bet is not only on imported bulls. Natalya Ivanovna Gridyaeva has a list of bull-bearing cows, whose offspring is under her control. The selected bulls are taken to the breeding enterprise at six months. Here they have a special diet, which includes, in addition to compound feed, whole milk substitutes, sunflower cake, feed additives and hay of very good quality. By the way, the breeding enterprise grows herbs for hay and grain on 600 hectares of its land. Part of the feed is delivered by farms on mutual settlements for breeding products. For each sperm dose from the regional budget, 8 rubles are paid extra.

Voronezhsky often hosts conferences and seminars on selection, breeding, and increasing the productivity of livestock. There is a special training class for classes with artificial insemination operators, for advanced training of milkmaids and mid-level specialists. One of the new program work breeding enterprises - transplantation of cattle embryos from highly valuable breeding animals.

In the tradition of the staff of the breeding enterprise - an internship with each labor veteran of the so-called understudy in order to prepare the shift. So that the connection of times is not interrupted.

3.3 Genetic reserves of the herd of the breeding farm "Gorshakha"

The herd of the breeding farm "Gorshikha" is the central core of the Yaroslavl breed. For a quarter of a century, a talented zootechnician-breeder, Hero of Socialist Labor I. E. Zharikov worked on its creation. Skillfully applying the classical methods of zootechnical science, selection techniques, in particular inbreeding, he achieved the consolidation of the herd according to the main economically useful traits - good growth energy and precocity of animals, milk yield and high milk fat content of cows, and the ability to productive longevity. He created valuable factory families, lines that had a great influence on the breed as a whole. About the best cows in terms of productivity, breeding young animals were delivered to the breed breeding zone, breeding bulls from Gorshikha were completed by breeding enterprises not only in Yaroslavl, but also in Vologda. Ivanovo, Tver and other regions, they were widely used in the artificial insemination network. Already by 1973, the average annual milk yield of cows in the herd of the breeding farm "Gorshikha" was about 5000 kg of milk with a fat content of 4.5%.

More than 6000 kg of milk were obtained from the best cows, and the milk fat content was 4.7-5% or more. Absolute record holder of the Yaroslavl breed long years there was a cow Nektarinka YaYa - 19713, from which 9181 kg were received for the fifth lactation; milk - fat content 4.87%. and 443.8 kg of milk fat.

The subsequent work with this herd was continued by the chief livestock specialist of the farm N. N. Aksenenkov. The average annual milk yield of cows of the breeding farm "Gorshikha" in 2000-2004. was 5500-5600 kg of milk with a fat content of 4.3%. There are 13 factory families in the herd, in which high milk yields and fat content (>5000 kg, 4.5-5.0%) are consolidated over four generations. Planned work is underway with the lines. The bulls obtained from "custom" matings are supplied to the breeding enterprise "Yaroslavgosplem", their sperm bank is also used in other areas.

Over the past five years, the breeding farm "Gorshikha" has sold 495 heads of breeding young animals, including 344 bulls. Currently, it is planned to bring the annual sale to 90 bulls. The productivity of cows of the breeding group, according to calculations, will be 7000-7200 kg of milk, for the herd on average - 6500 kg of milk with a fat content of 4.5%.

The main genetic reserve, accumulating the best gene pool of the breed, are cows with high and record productivity. They are used in "custom" mating to obtain bulls - successors of lines, fathers of the future generation. Therefore, their importance in selection and breeding work, in ensuring the genetic progress of the breed is very high. Therefore, it is necessary to constantly analyze the methods and selection options in which such animals are obtained, the factors that determine record productivity in order to purposefully conduct selection for the future.

The task is relevant for the Yaroslavl breed and, accordingly, for the herd of the leading breeding plant "Gorshikha". This study is devoted to the solution of this problem.

Livestock specialist - breeder of the breeding farm "Gorshikha" I. G. Aksenenkova presented a sample of cows of the herd over the past 10 years for analysis. The sample included cows with milk yields at the level of 6000-7000 kg of milk with a fat content of 4 to 5%, milk fat of 250-300 kg or more (or from 6250 to 8650 kg of 4% milk). There were 77 such cows, of which 35 are now lactating, including 11 true record holders (with milk yields over 7000 kg of milk with a fat content of 4.07-4.74%), cows with milk yields of 7000 kg and more than 4% milk (the standard of the Yaroslavl breed), milk fat for the highest lactation of 280 kg or more - 34.

Among them are long-lived females lactating in the herd for 7-9 lactations - 19 goals (22.1%). The offspring of these cows, consolidated by high productive qualities for several generations, has a great breeding value for the herd in the future. Most of them are daughters of prepotent improver bulls with breeding categories, coming from valuable families of the herd.

In terms of live weight, the record-breaking cows are large animals: 34 (44.2%) have a live weight of more than 600 kg, of which 2 are more than 700 kg, and only 2 cows are less than 500 kg. Average live weight 588 kg; milk coefficient 1070. The highest milk coefficients (1200-1300) are cows with a live weight of 540-580 kg. The lactation index (milk fat per 100 kg of live weight) in record cows is on average 47.56 kg, the best indicator is 61.73 kg (346.3 kg of milk fat, live weight 561 kg) - in Agave 28, she has milk fat and protein per 100 kg of live weight 111.3 kg (on average for record holders 85.2 kg).

Apparently, the optimal live weight of cows should be considered at the level of 560-580 kg, since such animals are more economical, produce more dairy products per 100 kg of live weight.

On average, for the herd of the Gorshikha breeding farm, the milk yield of Yaroslavl purebred cows is 877, the lactation index is 38.08 kg, milk fat and protein per 100 kg of live weight is 69.2 kg. Record-breaking cows exceed the herd average by 22-25%.

The analysis showed that animals with milk yields of 5500-6000 kg of milk in I-II lactations and earlier dropped out of the herd (on III-IV lactations). Their lifetime productivity was 20-25 thousand kg of milk. Cows with milk yield for the first lactation at the level of 4000-4500 kg of milk were used for 7-9 lactations, lifelong milk yield, respectively, 40-50 thousand kg of milk, milk fat yield from 1600 to 2200 kg. Of the 19 long-lived record holders, the best in terms of lifetime productivity are: Currency 1154 - for 10 lactations 50860 kg of milk, 2164 kg of milk fat, Morena 905 - 9 lactations - 48024 kg and 2244 kg, Bogatyrka 997 - 9 lactations - 47115 kg and 2200 kg, Jackdaw 111 - 9 lactations - 45009 kg and 1960 kg.

The main reasons for the withdrawal of highly productive cows from the herd are: barrenness - 22.0%, leg diseases - 24.4%, udder diseases - 12.2%, stomach diseases - 14.6%.

The age of the highest milking of cows - from III to V lactation - 77.9%, including for III lactation - 26%, IV - 37.6%. V - 14.3%. One cow had the highest milk yield for I and VIII lactations, 4 - for II, 3 - for VII, 8 - for VI. Consequently, the main milking falls on the III and IV lactations, which indicates the ability of the cows of the herd of the breeding farm "Gorshikha" to early abundant milk production. This is a positive quality, especially for the conditions of intensive technologies in dairy complexes. It needs to be consolidated, while simultaneously achieving an increase in the life of highly productive cows through balanced, complete feeding, good care, disease prevention, and timely treatment.

In previous years, the best cows of the herd of the breeding farm "Gorshikha" were used for 13-14 lactations, their lifetime milk yields were 60-80 tons of milk.

For breeding practice, it is important to identify the most effective selection options for obtaining highly productive cows. The effectiveness of various selection options for obtaining record-breaking cows in the herd of the Gorshikha breeding farm can be traced from the data in Table 3.

Calculations for record holders confirm the results obtained in the analysis of the entire herd: although the difference in productivity of cows from intraline selection and crosses is small (milk yields are almost the same), but milk fat content, protein content in milk, milk fat and protein yield per lactation are higher in cows from crosses of lines (by 6.3%). The highest rates of milk production in cows obtained in straincrossing; intra-line selection in the Vest line is the least effective.

The similarity of the conclusions when characterizing different selection options for record holders and the herd on average confirms the objective pattern, the typicality for the herd of the breeding farm "Gorshikha" of such a selection effect and gives reason to recommend crosses of lines with moderate and distant inbreeding on outstanding animals as the predominant type of selection and in further work with herd, as well as straincrossing as the most effective option.

An analysis of the pedigrees of record-breaking cows up to the 7th-8th generations shows that all of them, without exception, were obtained using moderate and distant inbreeding, as a rule, complex inbreeding for 2, 3 animals or more. Most often, inbreeding occurs on Mota 1060, Maka 105, Amur 213, Nakata 276, Sudar 62, Seine 492 - outstanding animals of the breed. Undoubtedly, they show their influence on the offspring.

The absolute record holder - Agave 28 on VII lactation gave 7301 kg of milk with a fat content of 4.74% and 346.3 kg of milk fat, a protein content of 3.81% (8657 kg of 4% milk). She had 7 completed lactations, with an average per lifetime lactation of 5649 kg - 4.48% - 252.9 kg - 3.84% (6322 kg of 4% milk). Obtained in a cross of lines Volny (♀) and Marta (♂) with inbreeding on Poppy 105 V-V, Gorn 458 V-IV. Father - Balsam 1163 - A2B1, with milk yield of mother and grandmothers over 7000 kg of milk with a fat content of 4.16-4.59%. Homogeneous selection to Dumka 927 hp Freestyle with a milk yield of 5953 kg - 4.95% - 3.65% contributed to obtaining a daughter with a record productivity.

The second in terms of productivity is Milka 964 (III - 7116 kg - 4.7% - 334.4 kg - 3.3% protein). From lactation II, her yield was 6600-7000 kg, that is, consistently high, the fat content in milk ranged from 4 to 4.7%. Gambit 1042, w.m. Grom 563, with inbreeding on Amur 213 IV-III, Granit 361 VI-V, Gusar 714 V-IV, belongs to the Gazelle 888 family. 3.45%). the male ancestors Grom 563 and Amur 213 passed on to their offspring the same qualities that determined the genotype and phenotype of the cow.

In third place is Ankara 342 (IV - 7010 kg - 4.48% -314.3 kg, 3.45% protein). She was obtained in the straincrossing of lines Mart and Zhileta, father - an outstanding bull No. 497 B: inbred to Sudar 62 V-IV, Poppy V, V-IV, V, Seine V-V. Already from the first lactation, Ankara had a milk yield of 5366 kg, milk fat content of 4.54%, and consistently maintained high rates for six lactations (I-VI - 6011 kg - 4.49%). Exceeded all female maternal ancestors in productivity, which may be due to the improving effect of the bull and the type of selection.

Cow Caring 1084 ranks fourth in milk fat production (IV - 7448 kg - 4.17% - 310.4 kg - 3.39%). It was obtained by intraline selection of the Marta line (Balzam island 1163, o.m. Zabavnik 917 A,), with inbreeding on Amur A, 213 - V-V, Nevoda 492 A, B, VI-V, Gusara 714 -V-IV, Poppy 105 - VII-VII, V, V. High milk yields were maintained from lactation I to V with a low fat content in milk. This is typical for animals of the Marta line, but may be due to the influence of Amur 213, a prepotent improver in terms of milk yield, but with a lower fat content of the offspring.

The record holder for fat milk content is Gerbera-5161 (III - 6055 kg - 3.10% - 309 kg, 3.71% protein). Consistently high milk yield and milk fat content of Gerbera were fixed in three generations by homogeneous selection: the mother had a fat content in milk of 5.68%, protein 3.9%, m.m. - 5.2%, m.m.m. - 4.84%, m.o. - 4.71%; sire - Valok 1056 Bg She got Gerbera in the cross of Magnat and Murat lines, with inbreeding for Poppy V-V, Nevoda 492 VI-V, Zhileta VII-VIII.

The second record holder for fat milk content is Vakancy 1,130 (IV - 5601 - 5.04% - 282.1 kg of milk fat, protein - 3.97%), also the daughter of Valka 1056, obtained by intraline selection of l. Murat, homogeneous on this trait (m. - IV - 5463 kg - 5.03%), with inbreeding on Mota 1060 IV-IV, Vest 345 - -VIII, VII.

The pedigree of the cow Kola 85 is rich in fat-milk female ancestors (III - 6036 kg - 4.96% - 311.7 kg, 3.61% protein). It was obtained in the cross between the lines of Dobrogo and Nevod - Fr. Gray 855 B1, o.m. Knife 525 A1, with inbreeding for Divny 1034-IV-IV, Mirny 999 - V-IV, Good 593 VII, VI-VI, VI; m. - III - 5876 - 4.87% -4.02%: m.m. - III - 5415 - 5.0% - 3.53%, m.o. - IX - 6190 - 5.18% - 3.40%; Mmm. - VI - 5508 - 4.59%.

The daughter of bull No. 497 - Morena 905, Waffle family 516 (III - 6182 kg - 4.97% - 307.2 kg - 3.62% protein) was distinguished by high lifelong milk yields in combination with fat milk content, productive longevity; from I to IX lactation milk yield - 5336 kg - 4.67% - 3.51%; these qualities were passed down through female ancestors from mother and father; type of selection - cross lines of Murat and Zhilet, with inbreeding on Volny VI-VI, VII.

When straining the lines Marta and Zhilet, a record holder Arcadia 421 was obtained with inbreeding for Anchar 231 III -V M, Mak 105 V, IV-V, Tverdy 577 V-VI (V - 7012 kg - 4.13% - 3.43%; I - -b774 kg - 4.13% - 3.44%). However, a significant increase in milk yield in comparison with female ancestors in three rows of the pedigree was accompanied by a decrease in milk fat content in Arcadia.

In this type of selection, several other highly productive cows were also obtained. In addition, there was such a selection as the mating of two inbred animals that did not have common ancestors in the first three or four rows of the pedigree. It is known from zootechnical theory and practice that the effect of heterosis is obtained by refreshing the blood, enriching heredity, and relieving inbreeding depression.

Maternal families also have an influence: 57 record holders (74%) belong to factory families: Vetrinki 662 (9 heads - 6336 kg - 4.38% - 3.56%); Melons 224 (6 heads - 6208 kg - 4.43% - 3.42%); Vegi 493 (5 heads - 6140 kg - 4.48% - 3.46%); Novki 317 (4 heads - 6183 kg - 4.39% - 3.54%); other families (Azochki 896, Gazelle 888. Gavrosh 163, Zhabki 96, Fringe 320, Mockery 269 and so on) include 33 record holders. On average, the productivity of cows from families - 6300 kg - 4.43% - 3.54% (n=57), that is, almost the same as that for the entire group of record holders. It is more reliable to establish the influence of families, their breeding value, by calculating the degree of realization of the average genetic potential obtained from the closest female ancestors (according to the Wright inbreeding coefficient), expressed as a percentage.

Such a calculation for each record holder (individually) showed that the actual yield of milk fat for the highest lactation exceeded the parental potential by an average of 6.8% with fluctuations from 81% to 144.7%, that is, inheritance went mainly according to the type above the intermediate ( in 45 cows, or 58.4%).

This indicator is the highest in straincrossing and blood refreshing (cross of two inbred animals); in cows of the Vetrinka 662 family, it was 111.5%, in the Vega 493 family - 112.2%, in Melon 224 - 104.5%, in Novka 317 - 103.2%, on average for families - 108.2%.

Milka 964, Gazelle 888 family - 144.7%, Aragva 388, Vetrinka 662 family - 137.6% (both obtained in straincrossing) have the highest superiority; Galaxy 43, Ankara 342, Agra 46, Melovaya 1200, Zamochka 1284 have an excess of the average genetic potential for milk fat by 124 - 127%. These animals and their offspring have breeding value for the herd and for the future.

Thus, the most effective type of selection for obtaining record cows in the herd of the breeding farm "Gorshikha" was a cross of lines with moderate and remote complex inbreeding on outstanding animals of the breed (lines of Volny YaYA-4370, Murata YaYa-4388, Marta YaYa-2456, Zhileta YaYa -4574). The best cows were obtained by straincrossing (crossing two related lines, one of which came out of the other).

Record holders were obtained in a homogeneous selection over several generations from highly productive female ancestors; 74% of record holders belong to valuable factory families; in 58.4% of record holders, the inheritance of parental productivity potential was above the intermediate type: superiority over mothers and maternal grandmothers in terms of a complex indicator (milk fat per lactation) was 11.5-17%.

The heritability of milk yield from mothers is relatively low (h2=0.102), while the milk fat content is very high (=0.768), the amount of milk fat is average (h2=0.334). The frequency of milk yields from the first to subsequent lactations is quite high: I and II lactations r=0.491, I and the average lifetime r=0.684. Therefore, selection for I lactation is quite effective.

The maximum productivity of the majority of record holders falls on the III-IV lactation. Abundant milk cows from the first lactation left the herd early; The longevity of record holders is due to heredity: 42.0% of cows that had 7-9 lactations each came from mothers of centenarians.

3.4 Economic efficiency of the Sadovskoye breeding farm, Novosibirsk Region

Breeding plant "Sadovskoe", located in the Krasnozersky district of the Novosibirsk region.

This is a fairly large farm in Western Siberia. The total land use area is 32,860 ha, including 86.4% agricultural land, of which 74.8% is arable land. 11,000 hectares are occupied by grain crops. The main commercial crop is spring wheat. The production direction of the economy can be characterized as grain and meat.

In animal husbandry, the farm receives the bulk of its profits from the sale of cattle for meat, although its status is defined as a breeding plant for the improvement, cultivation and reproduction of breeding cattle of the Hereford breed.

Over the past decade, the number of beef cattle in "Sadovskoye" has been growing and now it is more than 6.5 thousand heads. The average daily growth of young animals reaches 1 kg. meat yield 60%. The farm annually raises up to 800 heads of excellent breeding young animals according to the “cow-calf” system and sells it not only in Russia, but also abroad.

Novosibirsk scientists, together with specialists from Sadovsky, have found a way to get such high results without any artificial feed. 15 herds of livestock are located on the territory of 6500 hectares. Here calves up to 8 months. together with cows they are on pastures all summer long. Animals can be kept on a leash and without it with free access to the walking and fodder yard, which is equipped with a windproof fence up to 3.5 m high, automatic drinkers, hard surface near the feeders and drinkers. The famous Simmental breed has also found its home in Sadovskoye, and such a well-known method of increasing the productivity of livestock as heterosis is widely used. The safety of livestock is 99%, the yield of calves per 100 cows is 88-92%

At the same time, due to a 2.5-fold reduction in the cost of a livestock place and a reduction in labor costs for beef production by 35-40%, beef cattle breeding is highly profitable. In 2002, more than 20 million rubles were received. net profit, and workers directly related to the care of livestock earn up to 7 thousand rubles. per month. New equipment is bought every year. The farm has the whole complex for the production and procurement of natural feed.

Foreign experts highly appreciate the Sadovskaya branch of the Hereford breed. At numerous exhibitions, animals of this herd take only prizes. For excellent breeding work, the farm team was awarded the Gold Medal of the Siberian Fair, the medal "Laureate of the All-Russian Exhibition Center", a diploma of the Government of the Russian Federation.

Since 1989, OGK Sadovskoye has been evaluating sires of the best stud lines and related groups. A total of 78 adult bulls were evaluated. of which 28 are recognized as improvers and are used to create a new intrabreed (zonal) type of Hereford. Particular importance is attached to working with families of cows whose descendants exceed their peers and the breed standard by 10-25% in terms of the main economic and useful traits.

In addition to Herefords and Simmentals, "Sadovsky" has a large herd of pigs: there are also sheep capable of producing magnificent skins - raw materials for making clothes. From Hereford cattle, in addition to meat, they get excellent leather for making shoes. Work continues on breeding new breeds - yaks have been purchased and, perhaps, in the near future, with their help, a special frost-resistant breed of Siberian blood will be bred. The farm breeds carps and sells their young in the tens of millions, which provides a stable additional income.

Over the past 5 years, land use areas have expanded, due to the addition of weak farms, the number of employees engaged in agricultural production has been increased; the composition of fixed assets is replenished annually (by 9.3%), including production purposes by 11.9%

The tendency to increase the cost of production is natural and is associated with an increase in prices for seeds, fuels and lubricants, fertilizers, veterinary drugs and more. At the same time, the increase in the efficiency of production in the economy is due to an increase in the volume of production of the main types of products, an increase in the productivity of animals and crop yields, an increase in cash proceeds from the sale of grain and beef, profit from their sale and, as a result, the level of profitability of these products.

Analyzing positive trends economic activity, it should be noted that in the OPH "Sadovskoe" there are still unused reserves for further increasing the efficiency of grain and beef production, which can be mastered by improving technological methods, as well as saving costs on field work, when sowing and harvesting grain and fodder crops, when raising and fattening animals.

In the conditions of tough market competition, consistently high economic indicators in the production activities of the OPH SibNIPTIZH of the Sadovskoye breeding farm are the result of the skilled and daily work of the farm specialists and scientists of SibNIPTIZH.

3.5 Dynamics of development of the dairy herd of the breeding farm "Chistye Prudy"

Breeding work with dairy cattle in the Chistye Prudy uchkhoz of the Vyatka State Agricultural Academy of the Kirov Region has been carried out for more than 70 years. Since the herd was then created mainly for educational purposes in the training of livestock specialists and veterinarians, breeding animals were purchased. These were 12 Eastobene-Dutch heifers from the Orichevsky breeding farm of the Kirov region. In the 1930s and 1940s, the herd was replenished with a group of Dutch cows. For natural insemination of the breeding stock, a bull Allan 2077 of the Yana-Niko line was purchased. It was a successful acquisition: 25 of his daughters had an average milk yield of 4496 kg of milk with a fat content of 3.8% (170.8 kg of milk fat). The herd gradually grew. The later imported East Frisian bull Albert 6 gave liquid milk daughters: 51 cows with a milk yield of 4627 kg had an average fat content of 3.5% (161.9 kg of milk fat). The bull Secret 301 purchased from the regional animal husbandry experimental station met the expectations of specialists. Istobeno-ostfriz by origin from the cow Sekunda 712 (5-5108-3.95%) and the bull Voskhod 315, inbred III-II on the Ostfrizian producer Agrost-Heridon 120636, The secret was left in the herd by 46 daughters with a milk yield of 4368 kg of milk with a fat content of 3, 98% (173.7 kg milk fat).

The transition from the 60s of the 20th century to artificial insemination of cows significantly expanded the possibilities of using sperm of producers of different origins, in particular, the Central and Ural offspring of the newly created and approved in 1959 domestic black-and-white breed. Numerous reorganizations of the educational farm led to a sharp change in the number and quality of the herd, the expansion of its genealogy. The economy became a solid base for various scientific research, but in the early 60s there were very difficult economic conditions. In the interests of the region, for the planning of breed zoning in cattle breeding, a breed test of three breeds was carried out. Purchased heifers of Black-and-White, Kholmogory and Istobensky breeds, studied the indicators of their growth, development, subsequent milk production and metabolism

In the 70s they used the semen of Dutch and then Holstein bulls. In connection with the construction of a dairy complex for 1,000 heads (including 400 cows), pedigree Holsteinized black-and-white heifers were purchased in Lithuania, Estonia and the Nizhny Novgorod region. For a herd of Black-and-White breed, stable in terms of numbers, conditions for feeding, keeping and exploitation were created, contributing to the increase in milk yield of cows. In accordance with the breeding plans drawn up regularly, the semen of Holstein breed sires was used, mainly from the lines of M.Chiftein and V.Idial, using intraline matings, line crosses and moderate inbreeding.

The consistent increase in requirements for bulls is evidenced by data on the milk yield and fat content of milk of their female ancestors - bull parental indices (PIB). When using 7 bulls of the domestic black-motley breed, the RIB amounted to 4823 kg-3 8%; Dutch (7 bulls) - 6168 kg - 4.17%; Holstein (9 bulls) - 9113 kg-4.18%.

The average milk yield of cows per herd increased from 3878 kg of milk in 1980, 4617 in 1990, 5354 in 2000 to 6516 kg in 2004.

Since 2000, FSUE Uchkhoz Chistye Prudy has been licensed as a pedigree plant for breeding black-and-white cattle and annually sells young pedigree animals to the farms of the Kirov region and beyond.

Most cows in the herd have a good combination of milk yield and fat content. The cattle is large, the milking coefficient is more than 10.

The herd is very young: first-calf heifers accounted for 32.5%, second lactation - 28.8% of the total herd. Although this indicates a further possible milking of young cows, however, the rapid retirement of valuable cows, which sometimes did not have time to give replacement heifers for the reproduction of the herd and the continuation of work with families, is worrying.

The father bulls themselves are unequal in terms of the productivity of female ancestors and the bloodliness of the Holstein breed, and the daughters of individual bulls also differ significantly in milk yield and fat content of milk both for the 1st and for the 3rd lactation. The difference in average milk yield of first-calf heifer daughters of individual fathers reaches 924 kg, in milk fat content - 0.39%; in full-aged adults, it is significantly smoothed and amounts to 266 kg and 0.29%, respectively. First-calf heifers-daughters of Code 189 and Astrologer 579 are inferior to their peers.

Nevertheless, the herd is relatively even in terms of milk yield and fat content, as evidenced by the low coefficients of variability of these traits in these groups (from 8.12 to 12.69% in first-calf heifers and from 8.93 to 11.99% in full-aged cows in terms of milk yield; from 2.82 to 4.5% in first-calf heifers and from 3.94 to 4.23% in mature cows in terms of milk fat).

The late age of the first calving is a cause for concern, which is the result of insufficient attention to the conditions for rearing replacement heifers. Difficulties with the reproduction of the herd are also evidenced by the excessively increased service period both for the herd as a whole and for the daughters of individual bulls.

The above increase in milk yield for the herd is given with great difficulty and depends not so much on selection, but on the usefulness of the feed rations of cows for periods of the year, underfeeding heifers. Hence the late ripeness and difficulties of reproduction.

Paying tribute to the solution of breeding plans, it is necessary to analyze and resolve in advance the quality of nutrition of animals of a highly productive breeding herd, and this is associated with significant financial difficulties. When drawing up a plan for breeding work for 2006-2010, the specialists of the Chistye Prudy educational farm are guided by the achievement of an average milk yield of 7,000 kg per cow per year.

3.6 Breeding farm them. Dimitrov-farm for breeding cattle of the Kazakh white-headed breed

Specialized meat farm them. Dimitrova Orenburg region on the basis of a license issued by the Department of Animal Husbandry and Breeding of the Ministry of Agriculture of Russia in 2002, it was given the status of a breeding plant for breeding and improving cattle of the Kazakh white-headed breed and selling it to the tribe.

The rational organization of beef cattle breeding requires, first of all, an optimal program of specialization and, on this basis, the most appropriate herd structure, which highlights a number of production indicators, such as output, fodder production, the degree of intensity of use of animals, and in relation to breeding, the material with which needs to be improved and improved.

The farm has 2,400 heads of breeding stock, including 835 cows. The pedigree and class of animals characterizes the breeding and productive qualities of the herd, which is mainly represented by purebred cattle. 55.1% of the animals of the total livestock and 77.5% or 588 cows are assigned to the highest grading classes.

One of the most important measures in herd selection is to increase the live weight of livestock, which, like milk production, is hallmark for beef cow. In the herd of the breeding farm, about 45% of the cows have a live weight of over 500 kg, and in the pedigree (450 cows), this figure exceeds 55%. According to the grading data for 2002, a breeding bull-producing group of cows (n = 110) was identified in the herd, their average live weight is 560 kg. The weaned live weight of calves at 6 months, which determines the milk yield of a cow, corresponds to the breed standard (180-205 kg).

The purpose of the breeding program is to increase the genetic potential of the productivity of cattle of the Kazakh white-headed breed based on the use of bulls-improvers of the domestic, foreign gene pool (factory lines of Kachtus 7969, Landysh 9879, Castle 3035 and related groups of Churchill 13, Pamir 10, Pion 29, Zadorny 1325) and tall cows with a live weight of 520-600 kg.

The improvement of the herd is carried out through targeted selection to create a new large, tall and long-growing type of animals.

Biologically complete feeding in combination with proper housing conditions allows you to grow bulls and evaluate them according to their own productivity with an average daily gain of 1000-1200 g, an elite-record class.

For the period 1999-2002, 350 heads were evaluated with a complex index of 94.5-124.8% and an average daily growth energy of 945 g. The farm sells the estimated high-quality bull-calves for reproduction both in breeding and commercial agricultural enterprises in Russia with the aim of intensive development of the meat industry cattle breeding. Over the past three years, 315 breeding bulls of the elite-record and elite classes have been sold. The breeding farm has the ability to annually sell 250 bulls and 200 heifers of the Kazakh white-headed breed.

Directional rearing of replacement heifers provides a live weight of cows that exceeds the breed standard by 5-7% (20 kg).

In the breeding farm, 75% of the breeding stock is artificially inseminated with the semen of high-class sires, successors of the main lines of the breeding plants "Red October" in the Volgograd region, "Ankatinsky" in the Ural region (Kazakhstan).

In recent years, the indicators for the reproduction of the herd have improved. If in 2001 there were 82 calves from 100 cows, then in 2002 this figure was 88 calves.

The farm was repeatedly awarded with diplomas for animals presented at all-Russian, regional and regional exhibitions, broods, auctions. In 2002, at the All-Russian Exhibition Center, the sire Kudesnik 17172, the successor of the Cactus factory line, was awarded a large gold medal with the title of champion in the Kazakh white-headed breed, and the breeding farm was awarded a diploma of the 1st degree for the success achieved in animal husbandry.

Further breeding of Kazakh white-headed cattle in the State Unitary Enterprise OPH PZ named after. Dimitrov will continue on the basis of the selection and cultivation of highly productive animals of a large, tall komologo type. The developed and tested program for the creation of such livestock is the main way to increase the production of high-quality beef.

3.7 Reproducer of the Kalmyk breed of cattle

The breeding farm "Sputnik" of the Svetlinsky district of the Orenburg region is one of the large farms. Its total land area is 47,684 hectares, including 43,775 hectares of agricultural land. The farm is engaged in breeding Kalmyk breed of cattle.

This breed was created and improved in the harsh conditions of feeding and keeping, being on the pasture almost all year round. Therefore, she adapted well to such conditions. Animals make good use of scarce plant foods, quickly accumulate fat deposits with favorable food supply, and use them sparingly when they are underfed. Therefore, in the eastern regions of the region, great attention is paid to the breeding of cattle of the Kalmyk breed.

At present, the Sputnik breeding farm is the only breeder of Kalmyk cattle in the South Urals.

The main task of the stud farm for the future is to ensure high profitability of beef cattle breeding. At the same time, the decisive role is assigned to the creation of a solid food base, as well as to the further improvement of selection and breeding work.

The basis for the formation of a herd of Kalmyk cattle was the importation of purebred heifers in 1969 from Kalmykia and bulls from the Aktobe experimental station of Kazakhstan. As a result of long-term, purposeful breeding work, the methods of selection and selection have created a factory line of Sputnik 1, the ancestor of which consistently transmits valuable qualities to his offspring. At the age of 15 months, bulls reach 462 kg, with an average daily gain of 1100 g.

The main selection of animals for the reproduction of the herd is carried out according to the results of the annual appraisal. At the same time, the best animals that meet the requirements of the desired type are allocated to the breeding core (65-70%), and the worst are culled. From cows of the selection group (7 - 8%), replacement bulls are grown.

All selection work with the herd of Kalmyk cattle is carried out according to the plan of selection and breeding work on the farm.

Currently, the breeding farm has 1524 head of cattle, including 620 cows of the Kalmyk breed. The average live weight of cows is 450 kg, bulls - 800 kg, live weight at weaning bulls - 208 kg and heifers - 184 kg, which corresponds to the breed standard. The average daily gain of young animals obtained from pedigree cows, from birth to weaning, reaches 800-850 g. The output of calves from 100 cows and heifers in the herd amounted to 82 calves over the past five years, in 2002 - 93.

The peculiarity of the reproduction of the herd of Kalmyk cattle in the breeding farm is based on strictly seasonal calving of cows in the winter-early spring period (December-March). During this period, up to 85 - 90% of calves are received on the farm. The highest calving density for many years is observed in January - up to 50% and the highest survival rate of calves (up to 98%).

The advantage of early spring calving is that February and March calves go to pasture already strengthened and better digest pasture food. In addition, with access to grazing, milk is added to cows, it is completely used by the calf, cows are less exposed to mastitis diseases in comparison with animals of late spring and summer calving. All this contributes better development young animals of early calving, makes it possible to beat off calves from mothers with a live weight of 200-220 kg long before the start of winter-stall keeping and form homogeneous herds.

After the commissioning of the testing station at the VNIIMS Experimental Farm, much attention is paid to testing sires for the quality of offspring and bulls for their own productivity. Under good feeding and keeping conditions, bulls at this station give 1000-1300 g of average daily gain.

During the period from 2001 to 2003, 5 bulls were evaluated for the quality of offspring and more than 300 bulls for their own productivity. In recent years, 229 calves and 412 heifers of the Kalmyk breed have been sold to the subsidiaries of the Svetlinsky district, including 77 and 162 calves and 162 heifers, respectively, JSC Buruktalskoe, 73 and 150 calves, Ozernoe JSC, 79 calves and 100 heifers, Tobolskoe JSC.

At present, grandchildren and great-grandchildren of Sputnik 1 are used in the breeding farm (see photo 2 on the 1st page of the colored insert inside the issue), these are sires Sayan 7131, Samur 3-32, Strongman 7521, Smichok 1368, Snezhok 324, etc.

Based on these breeders, work is underway to create a new highly efficient factory type of animals, characterized by increased live weight, longer body, strong constitution, low fat deposition and well adapted to grazing in the dry steppe and semi-desert zone. The material has been submitted for testing.

To improve the class of the herds, it is planned to increase the live weight, milk production, conformation assessment of cows. It is planned to increase the average live weight of cows to 500 kg, the assessment of the exterior to 80-85 points. All these activities will allow the breeding farm to significantly increase the production of pedigree products and dramatically improve its quality, create prerequisites for a wider area of distribution of Kalmyk cattle.

3.8 Hereford breeder

Experimental production farm "Experimental" of the All-Russian Research Institute of Beef Cattle Breeding is a breeding reproducer for breeding Hereford cattle.

The reproduction and breeding of Herefords of different ecological and genetic groups, the functioning of our own artificial insemination station, the availability of sperm production of high-value sires, the work of the inter-farm testing station of sires for the quality of offspring, the assessment of the individual productivity of the entire population of Hereford bulls provide targeted breeding work and a significant impact on the herd to improve the breed as a whole.

Selection and breeding work is focused on the creation of a zonal (for the Southern Urals) population of a tall, stretched type of cattle of the Hereford breed. The formation of a new intrabreed type provides for the predominant breeding of polled animals, therefore, sires are exclusively polled.

In the assessment and selection of replacement young stock, much attention is paid to its exterior. In the studied herd, it was revealed that in breeding bulls between scoring meat forms of body articles, live weight and height measurements at 12, 15 and 18 months of age there is no definite relationship, and in some animals the relationship turned out to be negative.

Among the animals tested in terms of their own productivity, quite massive bull-calves with well-developed hams, wide and deep breasts were clearly distinguished (assessment of meat forms 55-59 points, live weight 450-515 kg at 15 months). At the same time, individual individuals in terms of height at the withers and rump (less than 124 cm) did not meet the requirements of the type of cattle being created for the desired exterior.

In the selection process of determining the quality of replacement young stock, much attention is paid to its weaned live weight. So, high level weight growth and linear development here is mainly provided by the milk production of mother cows. The allowable genetic compatibility of selected traits suggests the possibility of purposeful reproduction of breeding animals with desirable hereditary properties of the parents.

The construction and development of the genealogical structure of the Hereford cattle herd is carried out through leading bulls, especially producers of imported reproductions. At the age of 5, they have a live weight of 1000 kg or more, a height at the sacrum of at least 135 cm, an oblique body length of at least 180 cm, a chest girth behind the shoulder blades of 235 cm or more. The best sires Som 20018, Nile 22028, Nos 23014, Sneg 27094 met the requirements of high breeding value and target parameters of the created large stretched type of Hereford cattle to the greatest extent. So, the producer Sneg 27094 (see photo 3 on the 1st page of the colored insert inside the issue), a promising successor in the III generation from the Canadian bull Stik 2T and the emerging stock line of polled animals, in terms of live weight exceeds the requirements of the target parameter by 20%, class the elite-record by 33.3% and the best peers of the herd by 36.3%.

Conclusion

Analyzing the literature of Russian and foreign authors, it allows us to conclude that the improvement of domestic dairy breeds in Russia should go in the direction of creating highly productive animals and types adapted to modern technologies feeding and maintenance, while increasing the live weight of adult cows up to 600-650 kg, bulls up to 1000-1200 kg.

This can be achieved both through intrabreed selection using animals of different offspring and production types, and through the use of world genetic resources, and primarily through the Holstein, Dutch breeds. However, further research should be carried out, both on the intensity of the use of imported breeds (bloodliness, created genotypes), and the possibility of their simultaneous use to create new types of dairy cattle breeds, which will significantly affect the increase in the hereditary potential of the productivity of animals of domestic breeds.

List of used literature

1) Gerchikov N.P., Breeding work in the herd of the Sychevka breeding farm, Smolensk region.- M .: Kolos, 1965.-p.36;

2) Godionov G.V., Cattle breeding.- M.: Kolos, 2007.-p.405;

3) Demidova V., Breeding enterprise "Voronezh". Communication of times.

4) Dunin I.M., Scientific support of selection and breeding work in animal husbandry // Materials of the All-Russian Conference on the coordination of selection and breeding work in breeds of farm animals - issue 1.-L. p.: VNIIPlem, 2001. -p.190;

5) Zolotarev P., Economic efficiency of the Sadovskoye breeding farm of the Novosibirsk region // Dairy and meat cattle breeding. -2003. - No. 1. - P. 5-8;

6) Kozankov A.G., Pereverzev D.B., Dunin I.M., Fundamentals of intensification of breeding and use of dairy cattle in Russia.- M.: Kolos, 2002-p.248;

7) Kokovina N., Dynamics of development of the dairy herd of the stud farm // Dairy and meat cattle breeding.-2006.-No. 1.-S.12-15;

8) Korolev V., Iskanderova A., Plemzavod im. Dimitrova - a farm for breeding cattle of the Kazakh white-headed breed // Dairy and meat cattle breeding. -2003. - No. 6. - P. 45-49;

9) Kushner X. F., Ioganson I., Genetic Foundations productivity and selection, volume 2.-M .: Animal breeding guide, 1963-p. 656;

10) Tamarova R.V., Genetic reserves of the herd of the breeding farm "Gorshakha" // Zootechnics.-2006.-No. 3.-C.2-6;

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Introduction.

1. Principles of selection and selection.

2. Organization of breeding business.

2.1 Form of breeding work.

2.2 Exhibition of animals.

2.3 Grading of animals.

2.4 Zootechnical and breeding records in animal husbandry.

2.5 Organization of tribal service in the country.

3. Familiarization with various forms of selection of animals according to their pedigrees.

4. Evaluation of farm animals by pedigree.

Conclusion.

List of used literature.

Introduction

When breeding farm animals, a person seeks to obtain from them a variety of high-quality products at the lowest cost of labor and money. This is possible only if the farms continuously carry out breeding work.

Breeding work on the farm is a set of activities carried out on farms to improve the breeding and productive qualities of animals of existing breeds, as well as to create new, more valuable forms for these conditions. Such activities should include:

· creative selection, preservation and maximum use of the most valuable animals, culling of the worst, unsuitable for further breeding use;

purposeful selection of animals for mating;

Correct choice of breeding methods and techniques;

creation of the best conditions for feeding and keeping animals during all periods of their life in order to manifest and maximize the development of those valuable qualities for which selection and selection are carried out.

If at least one of the links falls out of this complex, then the rest of the work, no matter how exemplary it may be, will not give the proper result. Tribal business is a single set of activities that are inextricably linked with each other.

The diversity and complexity of the tasks of breeding work requires the use various methods breeding. Modern zootechnics is armed with knowledge and significant experience in managing the process of rock formation. The possibilities of breeders in this industry have grown immeasurably, making extensive use of the results of the work of previous generations of livestock breeders.

1. Principles of selection and selection

Selection has been known since ancient times, proven by practice, to improve the breeding and productive qualities of animals. By selecting animals with certain qualities, such as abundant dairy cows, and by culling less valuable individuals, it is possible to develop animal properties that are desirable for humans. In this case, the results of selection will depend on the conditions in which the animals are located. This means that selection is a set of measures aimed at preserving the best animals in the herd for reproduction, and removing the worst ones from the herd. Distinguish mass selection and individual. Mass selection is used in herds of cows of beef cattle, in large flocks of sheep, when the origin of animals is unknown and one has to limit oneself to assessing cows by exterior and sheep by shearing wool.

Individual selection is an assessment of animals according to a set of traits, including productivity, constitution, determined by the exterior and interior, the ability to pass on the quality of ancestors to offspring.

The selection begins with an assessment of the animal by origin (pedigree). It is produced in order to determine the productivity of parents and their ability to pass on their qualities to their descendants. At the same time, similar qualities of grandfathers, grandmothers, great-grandfathers and great-grandmothers are taken into account. Moreover, it has been established that the nearest ancestors (father, mother) have more influence on the hereditary properties of the descendants than distant ones. These estimates are entered in the pedigrees of animals, which are compiled for 4-5 generations of ancestors with indications of productivity and other breeding qualities. Thoroughly compiled pedigrees allow not only to select animals by origin, but also to select them, that is, to make parental pairs of individuals with desirable qualities and a certain origin. It should be noted that selection by origin only makes it possible to predict the qualities of an animal, but does not always give positive results. The most effective should be considered selection for the quality of the offspring.

The selection of animals according to the constitution and exterior provides for the severity of the type of breed. At the same time, attention is drawn to such signs as a strong skeleton, correctly set strong legs. Animals with a vicious constitution, underdeveloped for the purposes of reproduction, are not selected.

The selection of animals for productivity is carried out according to the quantity and quality of products. In dairy cattle breeding, selection of cows is carried out according to the amount of milk yield, milk yield rate, milk composition (fat, protein), udder shape; sheep are improved in terms of wool productivity and fur coat qualities; in the selection of beef cattle and pigs, the greatest importance is attached to the growth rate and the magnitude of daily gains.

The selection of producers for the quality of offspring is carried out with special attention. The producer, females, as well as their offspring are created good conditions feeding and maintenance. The best sire is the one that, under the same conditions of keeping and feeding, produces more productive offspring compared to other sires and the initial performance of the herd. The assessment is carried out according to the qualities of all available offspring, without selecting only the best animals for this. At the same time, the productivity, live weight, physique of the sire's daughters are compared with the same indicators of their mothers. This method makes it possible to take into account the influence of father and mother on the quality of offspring. In pig and poultry farming, a comparative assessment of several producers by offspring on the same equalized groups of queens is used. The productivity of daughters is also compared with the breed standard (grade 1).

Selection, or purposeful compilation of parental pairs to obtain offspring of the desired quality, is one of the methods for improving the breed. Selection, as it were, continues the selection, enhances its effect. It is used in animal husbandry individually (providing for the attachment of the producer to individual queens - in breeding farms), group (in which the producer is attached to a group of queens, taking into account their average qualities - in commercial farms).

Selection can be homogeneous (homogeneous) and heterogeneous (heterogeneous).

Based on the assessment of a set of characteristics (productivity, constitution, origin and quality of offspring), one can draw a conclusion about the further use of one or another animal.

With homogeneous selection, animals with similar valuable properties are mated in order to consolidate and strengthen them in offspring. With heterogeneous selection, animals are mated that differ in productivity, origin, exterior and other characteristics. It leads to the emergence and consolidation of new valuable qualities in the offspring.

In all cases of selection, the producer must surpass the queens in their qualities.

Selection must be purposeful full use the best and especially outstanding animals, respectively selected according to a set of features and distinguished by the property of transferring their qualities to offspring.

animal selection pedigree tribal

2. Organization of breeding business

Proper placement of breeds of farm animals in a particular area is of great importance. It is the main content of the breed zoning plan, which provides for the delimitation of areas for the economic use of animals and is expedient in economic terms placement of breeds. Thus, in regions with developed industry, it is planned to breed dairy breeds of cattle, while in the steppe regions remote from cities - meat breeds.

2.1 Forms of breeding work

In-depth work to improve the breed composition of animals is carried out by special farms: pedigree state farms, breeding farms, pedigree work and artificial insemination stations. The best part of animals of all breeds is concentrated here. The main purpose of these farms is the improvement of existing and the creation of new breeds. They are designed to quickly increase the productivity of animals of all kinds through the widespread use of outstanding breeding animals.

2.2 Animal show

Exhibitions play a significant role in popularizing advanced methods of work in animal husbandry. Exhibitions are held to show the achievements of farms to improve the breeding and productive qualities of animals. Exhibitions can be specialized in one species or breed of animals, and general - with the display of animals of all kinds. At the exhibition, a comprehensive assessment of animals is carried out, they are assigned the established breeding categories, and appropriate certificates are issued for the best animals. The results of the exhibitions are used to develop breeding activities.

2.3 Grading of animals

Animal appraisal is a comprehensive assessment of animals with their assignment to a certain class. It is carried out most often at the end of the year to determine the breeding value of animals and their further use. The evaluation of sheep is carried out in the spring before shearing. Appropriate commissions are created to carry out the appraisal. Before the start of grading, the inventory number of animals is checked, data on their feeding and maintenance are summarized, grading sheets are filled out, and other preparatory work is carried out. Animals are evaluated by a set of features in accordance with the requirements special instructions by grading. Based on the data of a comprehensive assessment, each animal is assigned to a specific class. The highest class for sheep, pigs and horses is the elite, and for cattle - the record elite. The lowest are the 2nd and 3rd. Intermediate value is occupied by the 1st class. For each class, minimum indicators are set for productivity, live weight, conformation and other evaluated characteristics. For young animals, classes are established depending on sex and age. According to the results of grading, all animals are divided into groups: breeding core, user group, for sale (use or breeding stock), for fattening. After grading, a selection plan is drawn up, that is, an annual breeding plan, which provides for the coverage of all queens of breeding age.

2.4 Zootechnical and breeding records in animal husbandry

It is impossible to conduct breeding work with animals without proper organization zootechnical accounting. Zootechnical records are kept according to specially designed forms in magazines or cards. Such documentation includes, for example, a book of accounting for the breeding stock, an act for posting offspring, a book on growing and fattening animals, a log of control milk yields, a breeding card.

One of the forms of zootechnical accounting is the system of individual labeling of animals. To do this, make tweezers on the ears, conditionally denoting numbers.

Pigs and cattle are marked with a tattoo on their ears. Animals of all kinds can be marked with ear plucks. In cattle, numbers are burned on the horns. Sheep and cattle are marked with ear-rings, tags, and collars. In horse breeding, branding of young animals is practiced (burning a number on the thigh with a red-hot brand).

The labeling of cattle and horses using cold (hair bleaching), liquid nitrogen (-196 ° C), carbon dioxide (-70 ° C) is gaining distribution.

Numbers in animals should be checked periodically and, if necessary, renewed.

2.5 Organization of tribal service in the country

In our country, a state breeding service has been established, which is entrusted with carrying out measures to improve the productive and breeding qualities of animals. The main units of this service are breeding farms, breeding associations (breeding stations) and enterprises (stations for artificial insemination of farm animals).

In the regions and territories, regional and regional state breeding associations have been created, responsible for organizing breeding work in the region, region, which are engaged in the development of breeding plans, staffing stations for artificial insemination with producers, grading livestock, registering animals in studbooks, etc.

In each region, state stations for artificial insemination of queens of agricultural animals (breeding enterprises) have been established, usually serving several regions, staffed by breeding producers, whose sperm they inseminate queens in the farms of their zone (in accordance with the breeding plan). In zones where masses of breeding animals are concentrated, special subdivisions have been created to organize breeding work in breeding farms (inter-district breeding associations, etc.)

Of particular importance in breeding work is given to state studbooks (GPC), which take into account the breeding and productive qualities of the best breeding animals. GPCs assist livestock workers in conducting targeted selection and selection, creating the best lines and families, learning best practices for breeding, feeding and keeping animals.

In recent years, both in our country and abroad, to increase the productivity of herds, crossbreeding of cows of local breeds with bulls of highly productive specialized dairy breeds has been used. On this basis, work is being carried out to develop new breeds and highly productive types of dairy cattle in the country.

3. Familiarization with different forms of selection of animals according to their pedigrees

Selection, or purposeful compilation of parental pairs to obtain offspring of the desired quality, can be carried out through purebred breeding (intrabreed selection, intraline and interline selection), by crossing (interbreed selection) and by hybridization (interspecies selection).

The development of animal breeding techniques, especially the technique of artificial insemination, facilitates the work of selection. The long-term preservation of the sires' sperm and the possibility of its transportation over long distances make it possible to properly select, mate animals located in different farms, and maximize the use of valuable sires.

Selection can be homogeneous (homogeneous) and heterogeneous (heterogeneous) depending on the similarity or difference of animals selected for mating: by constitution, productivity, origin, age, similarity or difference in the conditions of animal rearing and by degree of consanguinity.

Homogeneous selection is used to preserve, consolidate and enhance the expression of valuable, most desirable hereditary qualities in the offspring, as well as to increase heritability, thus improving their breeding qualities. Such selection often ensures the production of prepotent animals.

The essence of heterogeneous (heterogeneous) selection is that mated animals differ in terms of selection.

Mating of animals of different productivity types, heterogeneous selection lead to an improvement in qualities, but do not create stability in their transmission to offspring. A valuable feature of heterogeneous selection is an increase in viability, constitutional strength and fertility in the offspring, which is due to hereditary dissimilarity, biological heterogeneity of germ cells of mated animals.

When drawing up a plan for the selection (matting) of queens for sires, one of the main conditions must be observed: the sire must always be better than the queens matched to him. This ensures the improvement of the qualities of the offspring of each subsequent generation.

In animal husbandry, individual and group selection is used. With individual selection, the characteristics of each uterus and each manufacturer are taken into account. They take into account the origin, the quality of the offspring obtained earlier, productivity, physique. In non-breeding farms, group selection is used, its essence lies in the fact that one, and sometimes several producers, are selected to mate with a group of queens that are similar in productivity.

4. Evaluation of farm animals by pedigree

In the practice of breeding work, the assessment of animals by origin has been used for a long time. Even when creating the famous Arabian breed of horses, great attention was paid to famous ancestors. Particular importance was attached to the origin of animals in the 18th and 19th centuries, when in Europe, in particular in England, factory art reached a high degree of development and the process of creating new valuable breeds of animals of all kinds accelerated.

The main materials for evaluation and selection by origin are factory books, pedigree cards, certificates and other zootechnical records, in which animal pedigrees are entered. The pedigree indicates not only the nicknames of the ancestors, but also basic information about them: inventory number, brand and GPC number (if the animal is recorded in it), breed, productivity indicators, live weight, breeding value class. There are several forms of pedigrees:

I. Ordinary (simple) pedigrees.

1.1. Construction of a graphed grid with rows of ancestors. This is the most convenient form of pedigree. They build it on 3-4 rows of ancestors. For a deeper analysis of the origin of animals, the number of rows is increased. The grid of rows is first of all divided into maternal (left) and paternal (right) halves of the pedigree. 15 first row record data about the parents (father and mother); in the second row - about four ancestors (grandmothers and grandfathers on the father's side and on the mother's side); in the third - about eight ancestors (four great-grandmothers and four great-grandfathers); in the fourth row - about sixteen ancestors (eight great-great-grandmothers and eight great-great-grandfathers). The place of each ancestor in the pedigree is abbreviated by letters:

M - mother, OM - mother's father, MM - mother's mother, etc.

1.2. Recording descent by lettering the location of ancestors in a pedigree. Usually this form of pedigree is used in the GPC and in breeding certificates. This form of recording the origin of animals is less convenient for analysis and evaluation. Its merit lies only in its compactness. Proceeding from the same, only 2, less often 3 rows of ancestors are entered in the GPC with reference to other books where you can find a continuation of the genealogy.

1.3. A more simplified record of pedigrees, which is convenient for multiple samples to analyze the genealogical structure of the herd. If any of the ancestors of one animal is repeated in the pedigree of another, then its origin can not be deployed again.

1.4. Chain pedigrees. They are very convenient for analyzing the origin of animals in the direct maternal line, identifying families in the herd, and analyzing the selection of sires for the queens.

II. Structural pedigrees.

2.1. Solitary pedigrees, in which lines indicate the relationship of animals, circles - queens, squares - producers. Under the circles and squares, in addition to the names and numbers of animals, put down the main indicators of their productive qualities or breeding value classes. ON THE. Kravchenko recommends using additional designations when constructing such pedigrees. For example, cows, depending on the amount of milk yield, should be marked with two, three, four or more contour circles, framed, etc. Different indicators of fatty milk are noted inside the circles with a certain number of dots and other signs. With such designations, the features of the pedigree are clearly visible and it is easier to analyze it. If in a structural pedigree the lines of kinship are closed, then this means that inbreeding has been applied.

2.2. Group pedigrees (genealogical schemes) are made during genealogical analyzes of herds, breeds, when, on the basis of origin, related animals are grouped together (related groups, genealogical groups, lines, families). Such group pedigrees are based on direct paternal or direct maternal descent.

The best form of recording group descent from the direct maternal line is the method of cross-pedigrees. Usually it is used in the compilation of genealogical charts of families.

Conclusion

The study of pedigrees allows not only to predict the level of productivity and various qualities of animals, but also helps to better understand the characteristics of the herd as a whole, to identify the effectiveness of the selection of past years, to determine the results of the applied related mating, to judge what the influx of blood of another breed gave. Pedigrees make it possible to predetermine which animals in the herd are best used for a particular type of mating.

What are the requirements for a pedigree? It will be the more valuable, the more it is saturated with ancestors, highly valuable in terms of productive and breeding qualities. It is important that outstanding ancestors are located on both sides of the pedigree (from the side of the father and from the side of the mother), which indicates the likelihood of fixing a better heredity. Of essential importance is the absence in the pedigree of ancestors characterized by low productivity or other undesirable qualities.

Evaluation of animals by pedigrees will be the more effective, the more knowledge the specialist has about the history and characteristics of the breed, its breeding resources, the compatibility of various related groups, the more data on the experience of breeding work with the herd and breed, the use of individual outstanding animals. Evaluating animals by pedigree, you need to focus on the breeding fund, which is supposed to use the animal being evaluated.

When assessing animals by origin, it should be remembered that, despite its great importance, it should be considered preliminary. The final judgment on the value of an animal can be made after the identification of its productivity and evaluation of the quality of the offspring.

Bibliography

1. Dmitriev N.G., Zhigachev A.I., Breeding farm animals with the basics of private zootechnics and industrial animal husbandry.- L .: Agropromizdat, 1989.-p.547;

2. Kabanov V. D., Pig breeding. - M .: Kolos, 2001. - p. 431;

3. Kozlov S. A., Parfenov V. A., Horse breeding. - St. Petersburg: Publishing house "Lan", 2004. - p. 304;

4. Kochish I. I., Petrash M. G., Smirnov S. B., Poultry farming. - M .: KolosS, 2003. - p. 407;

5. Frost V. A., Sheep breeding and goat breeding. - Stavropol book publishing house, 2002. - p. 452;

6. Schei E.V., Popov I.K., Breeding of farm animals.- M.: Ros. state agrarian correspondence, 2002.- p.143.

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Coursework: Forms and methods of breeding work in the breeding farm, breeding reproducer, farming. Organization of breeding work in pig breeding Organization of selective breeding work in animal husbandry

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