Creation of publishing original maps. Engraving
Engraving
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Artistic processing of metals
Engraving
Engraving is one of the oldest methods of artistic processing of metals and some non-metallic materials (bone, wood, stone, etc.). Its essence is the application of a linear pattern or relief to the material using a cutter. Over the many millennia of its existence, engraving has penetrated into a wide variety of areas of production, both artistic (jewelry, engravings) and purely technical, for example, the production of precision measuring instruments and devices (marking divisions, grading and digitizing micrometer and vernier scales, etc.). ).
In the technology of artistic engraving, one can distinguish between:
- planar engraving (two-dimensional), in which only the surface is processed.
– armored engraving (three-dimensional).
This technique is widespread in the artistic processing of metals. Its purpose is to decorate the surface of the product by applying a contour drawing or pattern or complex portrait, multi-figure or landscape tone compositions, as well as the execution of various inscriptions and type works. Engraving is used to decorate both flat and three-dimensional items (Fig. 1).
The possibilities of plane engraving are very wide - these are drawings, graphic works made with a cutter on metal, even more subtle and perfect than drawings made with a pencil or even a pen.
Plane engraving (also called “gloss engraving” or “engraving for appearance”) also includes niello engraving, which technologically differs from
ordinary only in that it is performed a little deeper, and then the drawing selected inside is filled with black (Fig. 2).
Surface engraving technology. The whole process of planar engraving includes the following operations.
Drawing preparation. Drawing for transfer to metal is performed on paper in full size in a linear manner. All tonal or shadow transitions are given by a stroke or dots (dotted line).
Metal preparation. The surface of the metal plate (or product) to be engraved must be suitably prepared. The main task of preparation is to make the surface clean, even and smooth. All accidental scratches and scratches are carefully removed by grinding. Then the surface is treated with fine sandpaper and pumice.
The surface should be matte (buffed) and not shiny (polished), as excessive gloss blinds the eyes and makes it difficult to work. If it is necessary to have an engraved design on a polished field, the background is polished after the design is engraved.
Rice. 1. Silver engraved glass Late 17th century. Master V. Andreev. Moscow. State Armory
Transferring a pattern to metal. To transfer the pattern to the metal, the surface of the plate or product is covered with thin layer white watercolor paint (or liquid diluted white gouache). The paint is allowed to dry and the drawing is transferred to it either by hand with a finely sharpened pencil, or through carbon paper, tracing the lines of the drawing with a finely sharpened hard pencil. The resulting pattern is covered with alcohol varnish or nitro-lacquer so that it does not wear off during work.
Devices for engraving.
Shrabkugel is a solid cast-iron ball with a diameter of about 130 mm and a mass of up to 15 kg, in which a segment is cut off from above. There is a rectangular groove on the round platform, and threaded holes are made in one of the two walls of the groove, into which clamping screws are inserted. The product to be engraved (or a board with a workpiece attached to it) is placed in a groove and firmly pressed with screws to the opposite wall of the groove.
The pads are made from massive steel or cast iron bars, equipped with special expanding jaws. The object to be engraved is placed between the jaws and firmly clamped with screws. In order for a board with a plate attached to it or blocks to lie comfortably and stably on a workbench and easily turn during work, a fender is placed under them - a special heavy leather or canvas round pillow with a diameter of 150-200 mm, tightly stuffed with sand. A special leather ring is placed under the shrabkugel for the convenience of work. Fenders give stability and maneuverability (turn) to the devices lying on them when working with a cutter, and also absorb noise from impacts when working with a chisel.
Engraving tool and its use.
Rice. 2. Niello on silver
A good cutter must meet the following requirements:
a) it must be made of first-class material;
b) polished and well sharpened.
Usually, cutters are used, which are made of high-quality fine-grained steel. If it is necessary to make a hard tool with low wear, then it is best to take silver steel or high-speed steel for this; cutters are also made of steel grades U7 and U8. Cutter blanks enter production in the form of steel bars with main surfaces (top, bottom, side and front).
There are the following main types of engravers:
Sharp incisor (spitzstichel) (Fig. 3, a, b). Its lateral sides are slightly curved outward, the width along the top is 1 - 4 mm, the angle between the lateral surfaces may vary. This is the most common type of engraver; it serves to perform most engraving operations: contouring a drawing, trimming corners in type works (especially handwritten, all kinds of corrections and erasures, etc.).
Messerstichel - knife cutter (Fig. 3, c). Its cross section corresponds to an acute triangle. They can reach hair lines of great depth: on a strip 1 mm wide, they can draw up to 10 lines.
Facetshtichel - faceted cutter (Fig. 3, d). Its side walls are parallel, and the cutting surfaces meet at an angle of 100°. Back width 1.5 mm - They can draw lines of relatively wide and shallow depth.
Rice. 3. Types of chisels: a - narrow chisel; 6 - wide stinger; c - messerstichel (knife engraver); g - facetshtichel; (facet engraver); d-justir-shtichel (quotation shtichel); e - flachstichel with a wide back; g - the same, with a narrow back; 3 - bolshti-hel with a wide back; and - the same, with a narrow back; to - fadenshtichel (filament shtichel)
Justirstichel - quotation cutter (Fig. 3, c). Its curved sides cross section form a sharp oval; used to align the frame tsarg, in order to facilitate the insertion of the stone into the jewelry. The cut surface is ground obliquely with respect to the main axis.
Flachstichel is a flat cutter (Fig. 3, f, g). The back and blade of this cutter are always parallel; depending on the position of the sides, the backrest may be wider or narrower than the canvas. Web width from 0.2 to 5 mm; used not only for drawing wide and flat lines; indispensable for jewelers when refining and mounting jewelry, leveling planes, etc.
Bolshtichel - a semicircular cutter (Fig. 3, h, i). The canvas may be narrower or wider than the back, but it is always semicircular; web width from 0.1 to 5 mm; applies to strong fonts different widths, when engraving recesses, with round and semicircular selections, as well as for finishing jewelry.
Fadenstichel - a thread cutter (Fig. 3, j), similar to a flat cutter. He has a lot of longitudinal grooves on the canvas; it is used for decorative crafts and for enlivening drawings. Stichels differ not only in the shape of the working part, but also in the nature and angles of sharpening, as well as in their sizes (numbers).
When engraving on concave surfaces or in recesses, bent engravers are used. For the preparation of bent chisels, one or another chisel is heated red-hot in the middle part and bent to the required curvature. Sometimes chisels are given double curvature, but both bends must necessarily lie in the same plane.
When working, the engraver is held in the right hand, in the fist, so that its handle rests on the palm, and the thumb and forefinger support the engraver in the working position. In this case, the elbow is on weight and only the thumb serves as a support for the hand, which at the same time acts as a brake and limits the slippage of the engraver forward. At the same time, the index finger regulates the pressure on the edge of the engraver and directs it along the lines of the pattern. The shtichel is always led only in a straight line from right to left, pushing him forward in small sections.
When engraving curved lines and roundings, the turn of the engraver is allowed only within a small range, and all the bends of the lines in accordance with the pattern are carried out by the left hand, which turns the workpiece fixed in the shrabkugel (or block) towards the cutter. The chisel must be well and correctly sharpened. The softer the metal, the smaller (sharper) the cutting angle. When cutting soft materials (wood), the angle is 45°; for steel it reaches 60-65°. It is impossible to work with a blunt engraver - it jumps off the metal and can easily injure the left hand, which is constantly in front of the engraver. In addition, a dull engraver, sliding off the metal, spoils the work. A sharp chisel easily cuts metal and takes normal chips no more than 0.1-0.2 mm.
Almost all metals and many non-metal materials (bone, wood, plastics, some soft rocks, amber, etc.) are suitable for surface engraving. Of metals, brass, tompak, trial silver, and some steels are best suited for engraving. Bronze, zinc, nickel alloys are well engraved; it is worse to engrave on pure gold, pure silver and platinum, and also on pure aluminum.
Sometimes etching is used together with engraving to enrich the pattern on silver and gold items. To do this, the product is coated with acid-resistant varnish, on which a pattern is applied with a steel needle so that only the varnish is removed (scratched) and the metal surface is exposed, then the product is etched with acid. Diluted nitric acid is used to etch silver, and aqua regia diluted with water is used for gold items. After etching, the varnish is removed with turpentine.
Armor engraving
Engraving (three-dimensional) - a method in which a relief or even a three-dimensional (round) metal sculpture is created with a cutter; in addition, two variants are distinguished in bronzing engraving: convex (positive) engraving, when the relief pattern is higher than the background (the background is deepened, removed); deep (negative) engraving, when a pattern or relief is cut inside.
IN modern conditions artistic engraving is used for various purposes. In some cases, the surface of the product is processed directly and a work of art (decorative items, jewelry, etc.) is obtained. In other cases, tools or devices are made, which then produce artistic products in serial or mass circulation. These include the production of engravings, prints, etchings, printing clichés, engraving of calico rolls, baguette rollers, embossing boards, embossing marks, punches and dies for stamping, molds for casting, etc.
It is necessary to distinguish manual engraving (with hand tools) from mechanical engraving, which is carried out by means of various devices and engraving machines, which, in turn, are divided into two types; in one case, the engraver controls the movement of the cutter itself, in the other case, the cutter moves automatically using a special template.
Bare engraving in comparison with planar engraving in modern conditions is used much more widely and more often. This is explained by the fact that it serves for the manufacture of devices that reproduce artistic products in serial order. These are stamps, molds, etc.
The production of unique items based on the artist's original using armored equipment is now rarely used. Bronzing engraving is a more labor-intensive process compared to planar engraving. Defense is performed by relief (or counter-relief) and three-dimensional objects (or forms for volumes). This work, of course, requires the removal of a much larger mass of metal from the workpiece.
Therefore, in addition to chisels, chisels are used in case of armored work, since chopping metal is much easier and faster than cutting it with a chisel.
Chisels are steel rods with a thickness of 6 to 10 mm and a length of 120 to 150 mm. The working end is forged and filed according to the shape of one or another engraver. In accordance with this, they distinguish: spitzubilo, flyakhzubilo and bolzubilo. The working end is quenched followed by tempering. In addition to chisels and engravers, engraving hand tools include: a core (or center punch) used for marking (it differs from a metalwork core by a large angle of sharpening); cuts - flat chisels of various widths with sharpening on one side; embossings - steel rods with different working ends for leveling the background and stuffing the texture. The shape of engraving chasing is similar to embossing (see “chasing”), but they are usually more massive, since they work mainly on steel blanks, when finishing dies and punches.
Punches. They are usually made from square bars. tool steel 6, 7 and 10 mm thick with corresponding lengths of 65, 85 and 100 mm. It is irrational to make punches of greater length, since they turn out to be less stable due to harmful vibrations and can bend from strong impacts. A small cone is attached to the working end of the punch, and a letter or number is engraved on the end platform, as well as its individual parts in a positive or negative image (i.e., outward or inward).
The so-called convicts differ from ordinary punches. This is a punch made in the shape of a letter, but in such a way that on its working surface those places that in a letter or number should be pressed, deepened (selected) turn out to be convex. When working, such a convict is placed on the place of the workpiece where the letter should be engraved. When you hit the convict with a hammer, the metal under it settles, after which it remains to engrave only the outer outlines of the letter, which is much easier. A variation of the punch are the so-called queen cells, on the end of which not a letter or number is engraved, but a part of the relief or an ornamental element. In case of defensive work, corrugations and needle files of various profiles are also used.
When working with a punch, the workpiece, as well as in planar engraving, is strengthened in a shrabkugel or block, under which a fender is placed.
At petty work use a magnifying glass mounted on a special tripod. It is very important that the workpiece is well lit by daylight or evening light during operation.
The process of armor engraving consists of the following operations:
1) preparatory operations;
2) engraving. To perform defensive work, as well as for planar work, a drawing is prepared, which in this case is provided with cuts with relief characteristics (height, number of plans, etc.) or a section of volumes. However, it is impossible to confine oneself only to drawing in defensive works. It is necessary to have a model, i.e. a copy of the author's original, made in plaster (or in extreme cases in plasticine or wax).
The transfer of the pattern to the metal is carried out in one of the following ways:
1. The surface of the workpiece is covered with white watercolor paint and a drawing is reproduced on it by hand with preliminary marking or with the help of a compass and a ruler.
2. A thin layer of wax (or plasticine) is applied to the workpiece covered with white paint. Then they prepare the drawing by doing it with a pencil on tracing paper. When translating a drawing, one must take into account how it should be on metal - direct or reverse (mirror). A mirror pattern is necessary when engraving seals, facsimiles and other works intended for obtaining prints from them. The pencil drawing copied onto the tracing paper is placed face down on the workpiece and rubbed with the handle of the engraver. Then the tracing paper is carefully peeled off and a clearly visible imprint of a pencil drawing remains on the wax surface.
Perform engraving. Engraving is done differently depending on whether a convex (positive) armor is performed or a recessed (negative) one, in which the work is carried out inside. With a convex armor, after application, the pattern is outlined with a steel needle or a spoke stylus so as not to knock it down during further work. Then the first chip is selected around the pattern. This work is carried out carefully so as not to spoil the drawing with a careless movement. In some cases, the chisel is sloped to create a taper on the vertical walls.
The next operation is background sampling; it is chosen (cut or chopped) with a flachstichel or flachchisel. When deep sampling or when engraving roundings, a bolt cutter or a chisel of a similar shape is used. After cutting down the entire field to the required depth, they begin to process the relief, which is cut or chopped with the appropriate chisels or chisels. In addition, corrugations, needle files and chases are used.
To speed up work when engraving repetitive elements or to make especially small and complex parts, punches, cones and queen cells are used, which are pre-made based on the pattern and nature of the work.
With in-depth armoring, on the polished surface of the workpiece, an outer contour of the relief is drawn and circled with a needle sticher. After that, they begin to cut the metal inside the outlined pattern. Cutting is carried out with chisels of various shapes, “you should kill in depth very carefully with frequent checks and comparisons with the original. The check is carried out as follows: a piece of softened plasticine is squeezed into a pre-moistened cut-out form and the resulting print is compared with the original, which is being worked on. The main depths are measured with a caliper or checked with a template.
During the finishing process, a small amount of the left metal is removed, and part of the metal shrinks, compacting under the blows of the chasers and the punch. After the final finishing (grinding and polishing of individual sections), the cast becomes identical to the model and it fully fits into the deep armor.
For cleaning and trimming at the bottom of the recesses, bent engravers and corrugations are used. In order not to spoil the edge, a special lining made of dense wood or metal (brass) with dimensions of 100X10X1.5 mm is used, the edges of which are sawn semicircularly.
Currently, in the manufacture of steel dies and molds, to facilitate the work of the engraver, preliminary rough selection of metal on milling machines or casting by a precision (accurate) method of the entire matrix or mold is often used. In the latter case, the engraving work is reduced to cleaning and finishing the die cavity, which greatly speeds up and facilitates the work process.
Various engraving methods are used in cartographic production: mechanical, chemical, photochemical, laser.
Greatest practical use received mechanical engraving with a variety of tools and devices. For engraving straight, curved lines, conventional signs, engraving pens with straight or inclined fastening of needles are used. More than 30 types of engraving devices have been created for engraving dotted marks (circles) of different diameters, straight and winding lines of different thicknesses, area marks, etc.
The essence of the chemical engraving method is the dissolution and complete removal of the engraving layer by chemical means. It is used to remove engraving from areas with background design (forest sections, reservoirs, administrative regions, etc.).
Photochemical engraving consists of transparent base a light-sensitive engraving layer is applied, on which a line image is exposed, and then the layer is etched (engraved) with special solutions. The result is an original (photogravure) with a negative or positive image. This method is used to make changes to content elements when updating.
The laser engraving method allows you to perform not only line, but also halftone originals. Engraving of any image is done by burning with a laser beam. The laser engraving machine provides engraving of the image, both in the scale of the original and in other scales.
The stroke elements are designed on the same basis - combined drawing (engraving) or on different bases, divided by the colors of the publication - separate drawing (engraving).
It is customary to start the production of line originals With drawing (engraving) elements of hydrography, then contours of other elements of content and relief. This sequence is due to the fact that hydrography is the basis for linking and coordinating other elements of the map content. When drawing separately, the hydrographic original serves as a control basis for other line originals.
The design of the contour load begins with drawing (engraving) the inner frame, grid lines, geodetic network points - the elements necessary for summarizing and mounting adjacent sheets.
Areal signs (salt marshes, sands, etc.), inscriptions, standard marginal content are pasted or copied into working transparencies.
The final stage of making a card - its printing reproduction requires the design of line originals, taking into account technological processes editions. Currently, flat offset printing is used, which widely uses reproduction photography and blueprinting. These processes are intermediate in the transition from the original map to subsequent stages, until the receipt of printed forms. The production of high-quality photographs or blueprints from the original map is associated with certain requirements for its graphic design.
Accounting for the requirements of polygraphic reproduction is manifested at different stages of preparing a line original. The dashed elements of the drafting original are drawn up in the colors provided for in the map legend.
Areal elements displayed with a colored background (water spaces, forests, etc.) are not shown at all on the original source, only their contours are drawn. A number of homogeneous stroke symbols occupying large areas (signs of meadows, vineyards, salt marshes), which, when finished on the publishing original, are made according to stencil templates or using stickers, are not drawn on the compiling original, but only their contours are indicated.
The design of the drafting original is made on paper or plastic, as a rule, at the scale of the map edition, of which blue copies are then prepared for the final design of the originals. Sometimes, for maps with complex content, a large load allows the design of the stroke elements of the original source on a larger scale than that established for publication. In this case, when photographing, a copy of the best quality is obtained.
When using transparent plastics, the line elements are drawn on one or more bases, divided by the colors of the publication (color-separated originals).
An increase in the quality and productivity of the design of a line original is facilitated by the production of a multi-color combined line image on engraving bases. . Performing engraving on such originals facilitates the recognition of the element necessary for engraving, simplifies the proofreading of engravings. In this regard, photoluminescent color separation is convenient.
To obtain a multi-color line image on engraving bases, it is necessary to design the drafting original with luminescent ink, i.e., drawing the outline with ordinary black ink, and the elements of hydrography and relief, respectively, with luminescent green and brown ink. Color-separated negatives are made from such an original with the use of light filters, from which combined color copies are obtained on engraving bases.
Frontier Control Tests
1. The line original is the basis for the production of background and halftone originals and is performed first of all, therefore, when it is designed, it is planned to perform (select the correct one):
1) color scheme;
2) layer-by-layer coloring;
3) shading of relief faces;
4) graphic construction of the legend;
5) placement of font load;
6) map layout;
7) a sample of external design;
8) a system of cartographic signs.
2. Correctly determine the sequence of making a line original:
1) drawing the contours of the relief;
2) design of elements of the hydrographic network;
3) the line of the coordinate grid, points of the geodetic network;
4) placement of the legend.
3. In a lined original, area symbols show
1) color;
2) only by contour;
3) strokes;
4) inscriptions.
4. In case of computerized execution of a line original:
1) the sequence of execution is preserved;
2) first, the external design of the card is formed;
3) cartographic signs;
4) inscriptions.
MODULE 4 . COLOR IS THE MAIN DESIGN MEAN IN CARDS DESIGN
Integrated goal of the module - introduce the ways of using color to convey the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects and phenomena on various types kart
4.1. The role of color on the map
Color on the map expands the visual possibilities of icon, linear and area designations. Color allows you to use the techniques of pictorial symbolism, the effects of color and light and shade plastics. It finds wide application in line, background and halftone images.
The color on the map performs the following functions:
- facilitates the distinguishability of objects;
- improves readability and visibility;
- helps to identify spatial combinations and relationships of phenomena;
- decorates a cartographic work;
– improves the aesthetic qualities of the cards;
- increases the information content of the map
The use of color on the map has a conditional and symbolic With thought. How symbol color is perceived depending on the specific phenomena displayed. For example, on a general geographical map, green is associated with spaces occupied by forests, blue (blue) with elements of hydrography, and brown with terrain.
The choice of these colors for specific objects is not random, it takes into account the principle of natural similarity of color perception in reality.
Color clearly conveys the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects. The qualitative side is realized in the ways of a colored background, areas, lines, moves, etc.; quantitative - is especially pronounced in the methods of color design of the cartogram, the quantitative background used to display the diverse phenomena of thematic maps.
On some thematic maps (geological, soil, etc.), the colors are unified. On soil maps, brown indicates the placement of chernozems. On geological (stratigraphic) maps, all rocks of a certain age are assigned their own color (for the Jurassic system - blue, Cretaceous - green, etc.).
Designing a color design begins with the development of color scales. The principles of their construction are related to the essence of the displayed phenomenon, the nature of its placement, and the indicators that need to be transferred on the map.
ENGRAVING, drawing lines or relief with a cutting tool on a hard surface with the aim of: 1) reproduction of images by means of prints (engravings), 2) obtaining accurate linear forms used for measurement, or 3) decorating the treated surface with an in-depth pattern. Engraving is done or manually or by means of special engraving machines, which in some cases only simplify the process of manual engraving, sometimes replacing it, but mainly creating precise linear forms that cannot be done by hand. Engravings, depending on the method of obtaining prints, are of two types: high and in-depth.
The first of them, when printed, carry ink on the convex parts of their surface, and in this case the amount of ink is the same everywhere; the latter, on the contrary, contain paint only in the recesses (and in different quantities - depending on the size of these recesses), while the paint is peeled off from the convex parts of the surface. High engraving includes woodcut, or woodcut, as well as the so-called armor engraving on copper, zinc or gart; to deep engraving - the so-called classical engraving on copper or steel. Wood engravings are of two types: longitudinal, when the layers of wood are located in the plane of the board, and end, when they are located perpendicular to the processed surface of the board.
Hand engraving. For longitudinal engraving on wood, pear, apple, plum trees are used, the wood of which has a weakly expressed layering, high density and low hygroscopicity. A well-dried board is processed manually or by machine, while giving it strictly parallel planes, with a board thickness equal to the growth of the typographic font, i.e. 25 mm. The front side of the board, in addition, is polished with thin glass paper. Before engraving, a drawing is applied to the board. The drawing is either copied from the original by eye in a mirror (to obtain a negative drawing on the board), or transferred using a grid, in which case the scale of the drawing can be changed, or a pencil original is placed on the board previously covered with skim milk and rubbed with a knuckle. After drawing a pencil drawing on the board, it is drawn with ink, after which the entire board is covered with a slightly lighter ink. The latter is done so that when carving, the boundaries between the left black surface of the board and the white cutout are clearly visible. The Japanese paste the original drawing, made in ink on thin paper, with the face on the board and then oil it so that it becomes clearly visible from the inside; the engraving is thus cut into the paper, and, of course, the original is lost. The board is placed on a leather cushion filled with sand for easier turning of the board depending on the direction of the cut line.
Tools for longitudinal engraving are knives of various profiles, set in wooden handles (Fig. 1), and semicircular chisels of various sizes (Fig. 2).
The engraving process consists in removing wood from the surface with a knife or chisel in those places where there is no pattern, i.e., where white spots should appear on the print. To do this, either one movement is made with a chisel, and chips of a semicircular section are cut out, or three movements with a knife, with which a triangular pyramid is cut (Fig. 3).
If the knife cuts only the drawing already made in the final form on the board, the engraving is called edged. But there is another type of engraving, in which the technical capabilities of wood - the clarity and sharpness of the stroke - create an independent engraving form, different in its means of expression from the drawing. Here the engraver, who is at the same time the author-artist, builds only a general composition in the preliminary drawing, and then, with the help of a knife, - cutting out black and white, thick and thin lines, their intersections, etc. combinations - creates images spatial forms.
In a longitudinal engraving, the knife, moving in different directions relative to the layers of the board, also encounters various resistances, which sometimes makes it difficult to draw a smooth curved line. In addition, the line itself in the engraving, which is a lying prism, depending on its position relative to the layers of the board, is not equally strong; a thin line is subject to creasing from the pressure during printing, and located across the layers - and the possibility of chipping. These shortcomings of longitudinal engraving prompted the English engraver T. Buick at the end of the 18th century. try engraving on the end. Buick's invention brilliantly justified itself, having made a radical revolution in wood engraving, opening up new rich pictorial possibilities for wood engraving. The advantage of the end layer over the longitudinal layer is that the cutting tool encounters the same resistance in all directions, which ensures the uniformity of the engraved curved line; the resistance to pressure during printing is also incomparably greater, since this pressure is directed along the axis of the layers. Thus, it became possible to engrave the finest lines without the slightest fear of breaking them. The use of a engraver instead of a knife simplified and accelerated engraving and created the so-called. tone engraving, built on the transfer of form using combinations of more or less closely lying parallel or intersecting lines, creating the impression of a tone of greater or lesser darkness. The technique of engraving on the end solved the problem of transferring in engraving not only the technique of the pen with a uniformly colored stroke, but also the technique of pencil, charcoal, and especially painting. Stichel used in engraving, are steel rods (Fig. 4).
The front end of the engraver is sharpened with a plane at an angle of 40-50 °; this plane is the cutting surface when the engraver moves with pressure on the board. A more obtuse angle would cut worse, a sharper one would cause the engraver to burrow. From the opposite end, the engraver is pulled, and a chiseled handle is placed on this end, which has the shape of a pear or, more often, the shape of a mushroom with a cap cut off from the underside. This cut is needed to press the engraver to the board, and it also prevents the put engraver from rolling on the table. Stichel are manufactured in various profiles; the most common of them are: grabstichel, spisstichel, messerstichel, flachstichel, semicircular and rebstichel. The main one is the burr, which draws a line of the desired width, depending on how deep it is in the tree. For excavation of significant surfaces, a semicircular or flach chisel is used, and to protect the board from jamming, a wooden or bone lining is placed under the chisel, which is held by the index and middle fingers of the left hand and serves as a support for the chisel as a lever. The Rebstichel draws parallel lines to engrave a tone of a certain strength. For end engraving, boxwood (Buxus sempervirens), commonly called "palm tree", is used almost exclusively. Possessing an extremely high density (the specific gravity of dry wood is 0.91-1.16), boxwood gives an end cut without any noticeable holes, which is absolutely necessary for clean printing and fine engraving; in addition, the layering of boxwood is very uniform. Only the so-called can compete with boxwood. iron birch (Schmit's birch, Korean birch), growing in the Ussuri region. Caucasian boxwood goes on sale in churak 150 cm long and about 10-15 cm in diameter. The churak is sawn into transverse circles about 3 cm thick and dried. Circles are sawn into rectangles, and the material is selected according to the uniform density and the purity of the layers. Only those pieces are processed, in which there are not only knots, but also curved layers, which are noticeable by their light satin color against the general matte background of the butt. Only the layer perpendicular to the surface is cut cleanly with a chisel, while the curved layer is crumbled or soaked. Rectangular ends are jointed along their side faces and glued into boards of the desired size with non-hygroscopic glue (for example, carpentry glue with drying oil or whitewash). The glued board is turned on the faceplate on both sides, polished from the face with more cycles or pumice, and its thickness is brought to 25 mm. Places that turned out to be unsatisfactory after grinding are drilled out and cylindrical plugs of good boxwood are driven into them, which, after trimming, are ground flush. In the same way and in the process of work, it is possible to restore a flat surface in an already engraved place and engrave it again. To avoid warping, boards should be stored on edge so that air has equal access to both surfaces. Boards of considerable size, to prevent splitting, are fastened with bolts and nuts passed into the thickness of the board, or a series of parallel holes are drilled on a special machine, into which 6 mm steel tubes are tightly driven.
Drawing on the board is done either in the same way as on a longitudinal board, or the board is pre-primed with white on egg white with the addition of a small amount of alum, which makes the paint difficult to wash out. For photographic transfer to the board, its surface is covered over the ground with a photosensitive layer, on which the drawing is printed from the negative. To avoid damaging the wood with solutions, the sides of the board are covered with wax or gutta-percha varnishes. The technique of engraving on the end is to cut out white places with a chisel, to find those directions and combinations of black and white lines that would give the impression of volumes, surfaces and spatial images. The ability to engrave extremely thin lines puts woodcuts at the forefront of accurate technical images. In addition, woodcut printing makes it possible to print an engraving simultaneously with the text in a printing press.
For high engraving on metal (bronz engraving), the material can be: hart, yellow or red copper and steel. Armor engraving is used in the manufacture of book decorations, headpieces, endings, drop caps, as well as seals. The tools for this engraving are the same engravers, but sharpened at a less acute angle. In addition to chisels, small nail files, scrapers, punches and chases are used. High engraving includes punch engraving. Punson - a square-section steel rod with a high mirror image of a letter or sign engraved on the end. The engraving of punches is an extremely responsible business, since they serve as the original for casting the typographic type. Before engraving, the steel rod is released, on a flat grindstone using punch hammer(a truncated steel cone with a cut along the axis, into which a rod, ground to perpendicularity, is inserted and held by fingers while moving the base of the cone along the stone), the perpendicularity of the plane of its end to the side faces is verified, and then the rod is clamped into the drawing block. With the help of a caliber - a device that gives vertical, horizontal and inclined lines at a certain angle, as well as the distances between them, the entire pattern of the letter is drawn with a needle, after which the punch is removed from the block and engraved with chisels and saws. When working, the engraving is viewed through a strong magnifying glass mounted on a special tripod. When the punch is engraved, it is hardened, and a matrix of red copper is pressed into it in a special press, into which the point of the typographic letter is cast.
in-depth engraving takes the ink for printing not on the surface, like a high engraving, but, on the contrary, into engraved recesses, while the surface must be clean by the time of printing. In high engraving, the paint is applied with a roller to the surface; in in-depth engraving, the much thicker paint is rubbed tightly into all the indentations. In a high engraving, the layer of paint is the same everywhere, in a deep engraving, a deep groove with a large amount of paint is needed to obtain a dark line, and a thin line with a smaller amount of paint for a light engraving. In a high engraving, the engraver takes out everything that should remain white, in an in-depth one, on the contrary, - everything that should be. black. When printing from a high engraving, the ink transfers to the paper when it comes into contact with the surface of the engraving, when printing from a deep engraving, the moistened paper is strongly pressed against the ink and removes it from the recesses of the engraving due to the fact that the adhesion of ink to paper is greater than that of ink to metal. It is easy to recognize intaglio printing from the print on paper: the depression from the board is visible, and the lines, especially dark ones, feel like bulges. Therefore, it is impossible to print an in-depth engraving at the same time as a high engraving in one machine. Material for in-depth engraving are: red copper, zinc, steel, lithographic stone. The engraving is done with engravers like those described above, mainly burrs. Grabshtichel, passing with pressure on the surface of polished copper or tempered steel, cuts deep into, gives chips and rolls off burrs on the sides. These burrs are then removed with a scraper. In high engraving, carving with both black and white strokes is possible; in deep engraving, carving is always with a black stroke. For engraving, a well-rolled metal board is taken, of a uniform structure, about 2 mm thick. The board is sanded from the front side, the edges are sharpened with facets so that they do not tear the paper during printing. To translate the drawing, the board is primed with a thin layer of wax varnish, which is then covered with soot. The drawing is transferred over a grid or through transfer paper and traced with a steel needle, after which the varnish can be washed off. To work with a engraver, the engraving is strengthened in a special rotating board, since the movement of the engraving engraver always occurs from right to left, and, therefore, the board must always rotate according to the direction of the stroke. The engraving table is placed in front of the window, and an inclined screen made of paper or white matter is placed in front of the engraving to eliminate the reflection from the board. To check the engraving effect, the desired place is rubbed with soot and lard, which after m. easily removed. Correction of incorrect engraving is done with a scraper that removes metal, or, in a mild case, with a trowel (on red copper). If this results in a cavity, it is knocked out from the inside with a special hammer on the anvil. To find the corresponding place from the inside, use a special caliper.
Among the methods of engraving on copper, there is drypoint engraving (as opposed to etching on a needle pattern in etching), which consists in the fact that the entire pattern is engraved with steel needles or a diamond set in a special pen. With this type of engraving, the depth of the stroke becomes insignificant, no chips are obtained, there is only the movement of copper particles, which forms burrs on the sides of the stroke. These burrs are not removed, they retain a certain amount of paint during knurling, forming a dark halo on the sides of the line, giving a special velvety softness to the print. A drypoint engraving quickly loses its clarity when printed, and the number of prints from such an engraving usually does not exceed two or three dozen. To strengthen the surface of engraved copper boards, they are sometimes coated with galvanoplastic iron (“covered”).
A steel or diamond needle also produces engraving on lithographic stone. Stone engraving is done when it is necessary to use a lithographic, i.e., the cheapest way to reproduce subtle graphic forms. The stone is polished smoothly, a drawing is applied to it with a pencil and scratched with a needle. Due to the fine structure of the lithographic stone, a thin and clean line with smooth edges is obtained. From the engraving on the stone, as well as from the intaglio engraving, an impression is made, which is transferred in several copies to a large stone for printing in the usual lithographic way. This engraving method is used for printing trade labels, brand names, letterheads with various embellishments, etc.
For in-depth artistic engraving m. b. the method of the so-called. black manner. A special steel roller, notched like a file, imparts a rough surface to the copper board. Being stuffed with paint, such a board gives a solid black deep color on the print. If, on the other hand, a scraper is run over such a board, it turns out that the smoother the surface, the less the ink will hold on to this place after wiping the board before printing, and the lighter the imprinted tone will be. With the help of the black manner, extremely soft forms of the pattern can be obtained.
In some cases, in the manufacture of in-depth engravings on metal, mainly on copper, an etching method is used. The pure form of the etched board - etching - is very often incorrectly called engraving, although in this technique the actual engraving, i.e. mechanical removal of metal, does not occur and the latter is replaced in this case by its chemical dissolution with acid - strong vodka (eau forte). Engraving of stamps and wax seals is carried out with chisels and drills on a previously tempered steel blank, which is then hardened. For the convenience of engraving, a seal or any other object is clamped into a special spherical iron block, which, having a large weight (up to 15 kg), allows you to easily rotate the surface to be treated in the desired directions. 5).
Mechanical engraving. According to their design, engraving machines are divided into two types: in one, the engraver directly controls the movement of the cutter, in the other, the cutter moves by moving along a template, and a special device serves to proportionally reduce the shape or to change the vertical movement into a horizontal one. Engraving machines either give a completely finished engraving, ready for printing, for example, on wood or lithographic stone, or are designed for additional etching of a line scratched with a diamond on red copper, although a slight load of a diamond pin with a weight of 100 g already gives a depth sufficient to accept the paint. stroke. The simplest engraving machine (Fig. 6) consists of two parallel prismatic guides A, located above a metal board or stone; a trolley moves along them with holder B moving in it, in which a pin with a diamond at the end is clamped.
The movements of the diamond in the direction perpendicular to the guides are controlled by a micrometer screw, which automatically turns to the required angle when the cart is returned back. This machine can only engrave parallel lines. More complex operations are carried out by moving the table, on which the engraving under the diamond is fixed; this movement m. b. rotational or mixed (rotational and rectilinear), which achieves engraving of circles, ellipses and their intersections.
The scheme of the rotary table device is shown in Fig. 7, which gives a view of this detail from below: A - a spindle on which the frame B rotates with a table C running along parallels; D - tangent strips (clamp) covering the movable eccentric E; screw F changes the eccentricity; with a concentric position of the eccentric relative to the spindle axis, the points of the table describe concentric circles, with an offset - elliptical curves. A further complication of table movement is obtained by introducing additional gears in the form of a system of gears that create extremely complex harmonic movements, resulting in drawing grids or rosettes that are printed, for example, on banknotes - the so-called guilloche, from which these machines are called guilloche (Fig. 8 and 9).
The engraving machine for wood (end) has a special holder for the cutter: the cutter, square or rhombic in section, is sharpened like a burr; in front of its tip there is a vertical blunt pin - a depth limiter, set to the desired stroke depth. When moving backwards, the cutter rises freely and only touches the surface of the board.
Engraving machines of the second type require, first of all, the preparation of a template. The latter, depending on the type of machine and the purpose of engraving, is prepared manually, or photomechanically, or by an engraving machine. The template is always made on a large scale, which ensures the accuracy of the final form, in which Ch. arr. and is the purpose of such a machine. When the template is ready, the machine is set to a certain reduction using the pantograph, which is the main integral part such a machine. On one side of the pantograph there is a tactile point on the template line, on the other - a diamond point on a copper board primed with wax varnish. The movement of the tactile is repeated in proportionally reduced form on the engraving board. , having a bas-relief, ornament, medal or coin as a template, transforms the movement of the toucher along the relief, producing a series of consonant curves on the plane of the board engraved with a diamond pin; as a result, a black-and-white graphic image of this relief is obtained.
The machine is shown in Fig. 10: tables A, with a relief original, and B, with an engraved board, move simultaneously in different directions at the same time; the tactile lever C during the movement of the table A receives, thanks to the relief, movement in the vertical plane, which is transmitted to the lever D with the engraving pin moving already in the horizontal plane; the micrometric screw E moves the cart with levers, setting the distances between the rows of parallel sections of the surface of the relief, traversed by the tip of the tactile probe.
To engraving machines, to a certain extent, m. also included are machines working with a drill or a milling cutter (Fig. 11).
The simplest type of such a machine is a two-arm horizontal-arm router, which is used in the zincographic industry to drill out the white areas of the zincographic cliché instead of etching them with acid. This router can be used for the same purpose in woodcuts. In connection with a mechanical pantograph, such a milling cutter can engrave a punch according to a convex template.
To reduce the pattern in engraving machines, in addition to the pantograph, they also use the principle of an unequal lever (Fig. 12): the lever, which has a tactile device at its lower end, walks along a template, moves a table resting on three balls with its upper end; engraved board is installed on the table under a fixed needle or router. With the help of a special bracket, moved along the rack with a screw, it is possible to change the ratio of the lever arms and thus obtain the required scale.
Jewelry engraving(monograms, decorations) is executed with the same engravers; Diamond is used for engraving on glass.
there is a method of depicting objects on metals, wood, stone, used almost exclusively for the purpose of reproducing these images on paper with one or many colors. Carving made for a different purpose is rarely called G. In essence, engraving is drawing on metal and wood using special tools and means appropriate to the surface on which the drawing is to be made. It can be done with cutting, scratching, stroking tools, with the help of acids or other liquids, or the design can be photographed and then turned into a printable cliché. Works of the first kind are engravings proper, while works of the second kind are photographic engravings in the general sense of the word. Real geography is one of the branches of the fine arts, which until recently, with the help of printing, served as the only means of distributing copies of works of art. Printing from engraved boards produces prints on which only the qualities of engraving are actually visible, therefore it is impossible to separate the consideration of printing from engraving. into several varieties, depending on which there are different ways of printing. The engraving can be either recessed or convex; in the first case, when printing, the recesses are filled with paint, and in the second, the convex parts of the engraving are rubbed with paint, which must all lie in the same plane. From engravings of the second kind they print as from a letter set, with an ordinary printing press; therefore, an engraving print may appear among the text of the book itself. This type of printing, after some preliminary preparation (see Seasoning), proceeds relatively quickly, while printing from in-depth engravings is much more difficult and slower. The methods of in-depth G. have the following subdivisions: 1) G. with a cutter, or byuren (au burin, en taille douce, Grabstichelei oder Linienmanier, Line engraving); 2) G. etching (using acids) or etching (eau forte, Radirung, Etsching); 3) G. in a black manner (manière noire, mezzotinto); 4) G. aquatint (aquatinta) and under the brush (au lavis); 5) G. speckled or dotted and under a pencil. After considering these methods of gypsum, the following will be described: 6) convex gypsum on wood and on metals (mainly zinc, zincography). Lithography, see separate article.
1) Engraving with a chisel - the most difficult of all, as it requires the ability to draw in superlatives, a faithful and firm hand to draw smooth lines of various shapes and various depths with a cutting steel tool on a copper or steel board; errors in this method of G. are almost incorrigible. The work of G. is preceded by the preparation of a drawing from the picture in the size of the intended engraving; in the drawing made, you should already consider the location of the strokes in all details; G. will be an imitation or almost a copy of the drawing. The light outline of the design is transferred by means of transparent paper onto a smooth, varnished board of red copper; the contour, transferred to the varnish, is slightly scratched with a needle through the varnish, to the surface of the copper. The board is then loaded onto a short time into the so-called strong vodka (nitric acid) usually used by engravers.]), which dissolves copper only in the marks left by the needle, if all other parts are well varnished. After washing off the varnish from the board, a weak pattern is found on it, according to which they begin to engrave with a cutter (Fig. 1), pressing it more or less strongly, from which grooves of various depths and widths are formed; copper shavings that have risen along the edges are then removed with a special scraper (ébarboir or grattoir). The successive states of the engraving with a cutter are clearly visible in Table. "Engraving", which depicts the head of Apollo Belvedere from the first contour to complete completion through two intermediate states. The whole engraving consists of many groups of smooth, short and long lines, more or less close to parallel to each other and intersected in places by other lines, from which comes the grid, which depicts the location of chiaroscuro on a real object. Small squares, rhombuses, trapezoids and other cell shapes sometimes contain additional strokes, dotted lines and dots that serve to finalize the chiaroscuro. Also, in those places where solid, even if not very thin lines, could turn out to be too sharp, they resort to a broken, or punctured, line.
The cutter (burin) used for G. consists of a four-sided hardened steel bar, cut at the end obliquely to the edge and axis of the plate so that the cut takes the form of a rhombus, of which one corner is the cutting end of the tool. Such a bar is embedded with a blunt end in a wooden frame, cat. the engraver takes it in a bent hand, resting the frame in his palm. The engraver has a whole set of such cutters.
Engravings made with a chisel have a peculiar, geometrically correct beauty, which goes in general to such subjects where the human body and draperies occupy more space. Less goes engraving with a chisel to a landscape (for example, in trees), where great variety and freedom are needed, even the whimsicalness of lines, far from geometric correctness. However, some excellent examples of this kind (for example, Woollet) completely make G. forget the sharp materiality of the metal through which a solid steel tool passed, and in any case the conditional way of depicting reality. Looking at the direction of the lines expressing the bulges and hollows of objects, you can make sure that they correspond to reality in a perspective sense. A series of parallel planes close to each other, brought to the surface of some rounded object, for example, a gypsum head, would present a series of lines that would appear in perspective as ascending to elevations and descending into depressions. Another system of such planes, parallel to each other, but inclined to the first, would leave a series of traces intersecting with the first and still more conducive to the expression of relief, so that a certain semblance of an engraving could be produced by geometric construction. The artist-engraver considers the best direction of the systems of lines, changing their width in order to characterize the chiaroscuro and even, to a weak extent, the color of the paintings, since the difference between the colors partly enters as an element of chiaroscuro in the drawing. Printing engravings on paper presents certain difficulties, since it requires pressing different forces on different places of the engraving, however, its success depends solely on the qualities of the engraving itself, and it does not change a single feature of the original; the printer has only to express all that is in the original. The paper used for prints can be thick, slightly rough or with parallel irregularities (papier vergé) or thin (Chinese) pasted on thick paper. In our country, printing was poorly developed, and there were good printers only at the Academy of Arts and on the expedition to prepare state papers.
2) Etching, etching. This method of G. on copper requires preliminary drawing with a steel needle on a board coated with varnish (primer); the needle cuts through the varnish with thin lines to copper, after which the board is exposed to an acid that dissolves copper, as a result of which an in-depth pattern is formed from which it can be printed. Needles embedded in a wooden handle are of various thicknesses and sharpened to varying degrees (see Fig. 2, 3, 4, 5). The technique of this G. method is much easier than the manipulation of a chisel and is accessible to anyone who knows how to draw well. A heated copper board is varnished [Of the many compositions (primer or hard) varnish, one (Deleshana) is given here. Pure white wax 119 parts by weight, mastics in grains 91 parts, gallipot 60 parts, asphalt 119 parts, concentrated rubber solution 13 parts] and then, held over the flame of a wax candle, covered with soot. For varnishing, a tampon-cushion is used, silk or leather, with a cardboard circle and cotton wool inserted inside. When the board gets cold, put paper with a pattern on it, rubbed on the back with some kind of paint, and outline the main parts of the pattern with a sharp hard pencil, which is why the pattern is transferred to varnish. On the remaining trace, a drawing is made with a needle and, having varnished the board from the back side, they immerse it in a flat vessel with nitric acid; or they stick a wax edge on the board from the side of the engraving and pour acid on the engraving. Then the separation of gas bubbles begins, producing, as it were, boiling of a liquid, which gradually turns blue (a blue color of copper nitrate is formed). Pouring out the acid, washing the board with water and drying it, examine the features of the drawing with a magnifying glass; then covered with retouching varnish [Deleshan's liquid retouching varnish consists of asphalt (100 parts), amber (10), wax (32), mastic in grains (25), purified turpentine (500), lavendula essence (64); rubber solution (4). Dries soon.] parts of the drawing, apparently, sufficiently etched, and again acid is poured onto the board for deeper etching of the unvarnished parts of the engraving. By repeating the washing of the board, the coating of parts of the drawing with varnish and etching, little by little the engraving is completed. After removing the side and washing the varnish with turpentine, after drying the board, rub it with paint and make a test print from the engraving on paper. Usually after this you have to varnish the board again, finish the work with a needle and continue etching. The print has the appearance of a drawing made with fine lines, which in some places are more or less expanded by the action of acid (tab. "Engraving", seaside view, two figures on the sides). This circumstance reduces the rigidity of the strokes and in general may contribute to the beautiful appearance of the drawing, but may also form unwanted spots.
An engraving can rarely be finished to such an extent that the printer has only to transfer to paper what the engraver has done; in most cases, the artist expects to improve the print by painting the board, as it were. When it is covered with paint, then, without wiping clean the surface of the copper between the lines, the paint is smeared with a piece of leather or a finger, distributing and partly removing it with muslin in order to form a very thin and transparent layer of paint that connects individual strokes and informs the print plans, contributing to the separation of some objects from others in aerial perspective. The artist himself sometimes lightly ink-colours the first impression of his engraving for the printer's guidance, or at least is present at the first impressions made by the printer. [The influence of the method of printing on the appearance of the print could not be shown on the "Engraving" table, which is nothing more than a facsimile of engravings obtained by means of zinc type, reproducing only the engraving with features. Printing real etchings gives them coloring with surfaces or plans.] It is often necessary, regardless of this, to finish the engraving with a few strokes of the needle, no longer subjected to etching; it is drypoint work (à la pointe seche). Sometimes they also use an ordinary chisel or buren to give a few strong additional features more character to the foreground. Similarly, engravers with a chisel turn to the help of etching along the lines outlined by the chisel in the secondary parts of the engraving.
Engraving with a needle gives the engraving the appearance of a drawing made with a pen [they engrave with a needle on a lithographic stone - usually drawings], but it is possible to give an engraving and print a look drawn with a pencil: for this, a copper board is covered with soft varnish (ordinary hard varnish mixed with lard) and, after applying enough soft paper with a pattern, along its features, is drawn with a bone stick or a hard pencil, making more or less wide strokes. The soft lacquer adheres to the paper in these places, and when it is removed, strokes are obtained on the copper, which, when etched with acid and printed, give an engraving like a pencil drawing.
3) In engraving with a chisel and etching, the chiaroscuro of an object is conventionally depicted by strokes, between which there are light gaps; the pencil style already more perfectly conveys chiaroscuro, although even here you can see through a magnifying glass that the strokes consist of specks, and are not solid. A drawing made with a brush in one tone is even closer to nature. G. black manner(maniere noire), called. in Italy and in England the mezzotinto satisfies this requirement. It began in the 17th century. and is still used in our century (now rarely), having reached a special perfection in England. The essence of this method is that they make the surface of the board rough, so that after printing it produces a smooth black surface. Then they are smoothed with a steel tool called glider, roughness only partly or completely in those places that should come out more or less light on the print. The roughness is reported to the board by means of lapidary or rocking chairs(berceau). This is a plate shaped like a sector, which has a number of notches along the arc. Pressing the tool against the board and shaking it, they thus pass over the entire surface of the copper board, first parallel to one of its edges, then do the same in a direction perpendicular to the first, and finally, for the third time, in a direction inclined to the first two. When the first one is over tour, pass on the board a second time in the same three directions; only after such strokes have been made twenty times over the entire board, is its surface ready and the board can go to the artist. Chiaroscuro is transmitted by this method with extreme gradualness, but its drawback lies in the too indefinite outline of objects, which can only be partially helped with the help of a cutter. In addition, the number of prints from such a board cannot be large.
4) Aquatint similar to the black manner in the sense that in this method of engraving a grainy even background is prepared; but the engraver's work on this background is completely different than in the black manner. First of all, they cover the board, heating it from below, with a rather slowly drying varnish, which should become very liquid from the heat, and pour finely ground powder on it through a frequent sieve. table salt , particles of which penetrate the varnish to the surface of the copper board. Without waiting for the complete cooling of the varnish, the board is immersed in water at room temperature, which causes the salt to dissolve and point depressions of various shapes appear in the varnish surface; when the board is immersed in acid, the copper surface dissolves in these places and after washing off the varnish, a fine-grained surface of the board is found. Very good results are also obtained by depositing fine resin dust on a copper plate. Raising pitch dust into the air with bellows inside a more or less high box, a board is pushed into it after a few seconds, on which small particles of resin are then gradually deposited. Taking the board out of the box, heat it from the back; from this, the resin particles adhere to the surface of the board, which is then subjected to the corrosive action of the acid. Thus, a grained surface is obtained, which is found when the resin is washed off with turpentine. If some places of the engraving should remain smooth (which comes out white on the print), then they are varnished before etching to protect copper from acid. For the same purpose, it is also possible, having previously covered the entire board with varnish and applied the contour of the pattern to it, wash off the varnish from those places that should receive a granular surface. This is done with a brush, which is dipped in a liquid consisting of olive oil, turpentine and soot; after a few seconds, the places passed by the brush are wiped with a soft cloth, thus exposing the copper. In conclusion, the board is covered with tar dust and poisoned with acid, as a result of which smooth places receive a granular surface. It is still possible to form such a surface by covering a clean copper plate with a solution of resin in alcohol or ether; after evaporation of the liquid, a resin powder remains, the grains of which have a size depending on the type of the dissolved resin. Instead of acid, sulfur color mixed with olive oil can be used to etch the grained surface; this pasty mass is applied to the remaining clean places of copper for some time, the duration of which (several minutes or more) depends on the temperature. The work of the artist with aquatint on the finished grained surface consists in the fact that, first varnishing the places of the engraving with light or sufficiently shaded graining, the remaining parts are etched with acid, after which they successively cover the sufficiently etched places and continue to enhance the rest to the appropriate degree of darkness. For a more complete imitation of drawings made with a brush (ink or sepia), G. (au lavis), moreover, they paint with a brush dipped in acid on copper, as they paint with water paint on paper. After making the outline of the drawing on the board using one of the well-known methods, they cover with a brush with Venetian varnish the parts of the drawing that should come out white on the print, the rest is slightly etched. After washing and drying the board, they again work with a brush, varnishing the finished places, etching deeper into the darker places, and thus carry out the work to the end. A drawing imprinted from such a board represents light and delicate tones, but not yet sufficiently blending into one another. The boundaries between tones can be destroyed by passing over them with a brush with acid and then quickly washing off the latter. Instead of acid, you can use a solution of lapis for retouching with a certain amount of gum, but iron pentachloride is best. This genus of G. gives excellent results, and again, with regard to the best specimens, it is necessary to point to the English ones. Printing from such boards is a very delicate process.
5) G. dotted or dotted. G. dots, or, more precisely, small specks irregular shape, is made with the help of sharp instruments, pressed by hand, or those on the head of which are struck with a hammer. The smaller the dots and the less often they are located on any part of the engraving, the lighter this place in the print comes out when printed. In England, where the semi-mechanical techniques of G. flourished especially, dotted engraving achieved excellent results, especially in portraits. Sometimes the recesses in the board are made through the varnish, which makes it possible to soften their sharpness with the action of acid. G. must also be carried here under the pencil with the help of an instrument called roulette, consisting mainly of a small wheel or roller with notches or small teeth around the circumference. By rolling the tape measure in various directions, strokes similar to pencil strokes can be produced; but the best reproduction of pencil drawings was presented by lithography(see), which is direct printing from a genuine pencil drawing on the smooth surface of a lithographic stone.
Various modifications of the described methods or the application of several methods in the same engraving, which was partly mentioned, cannot be considered in detail here, but the literature on the subject is given at the end of the article. Printing by all these methods is slow and therefore expensive; for this reason prints cannot serve as the usual supplement to cheap books, an appendix which has now become an urgent need.
6) For quick printing of engravings, it is necessary that they be convex, like the letters of a printing set, and that all the convexities lie in the same plane. Wood engraving (woodcut) satisfied these conditions. The process of preparing a wood engraving is as follows. On a flat and smooth surface of a piece of wood, cut perpendicular to the fibers of a tree (beech, pear), incorrectly called a palm tree, they draw with a pencil or pen - we first take the easiest case. Engraver carving wood between features of the drawing and, if the distance between them is large, then digs quite deep recesses in the tree, retaining all the correct or incorrect features of the strokes. A drawing filled with regular lines cuts easily, but the engraver's task is more difficult when the lines of the pencil are free, of unequal width, and blurred at the edges; nevertheless, skillful engravers make engravings that completely imitate a pencil, even a shaded one. Sometimes the drawing is made half with a pencil or pen and half with a brush: in this case, the engraver makes a facsimile of the drawing with painstaking work, or, executing it with strokes corresponding to the tree, is no longer a copyist, but an interpreter of the drawing. Nowadays, the engraver often has to cut from a photograph taken on a tree; he draws a series of almost parallel lines, whose thickness along the length constantly changes according to whether the line is in a light or in a dark place; the combination of such strokes produces chiaroscuro, quite close to photographic. Engravers on wood often engrave heads, portraits and the body in general, imitating the features of engravings on copper, with the only difference in the technique of work being that between intersecting strokes it is necessary to remove the wood inside the cells formed by the strokes. Wood engraving works best when the engraver uses the means appropriate to this material, freely making incised lines. By crossing them, short black lines and dots are formed. Fig. 9 and 10 represent the same object, carved in two ways: in-depth engraving gives a white figure in the print on a dark field; the same figure with convex features left gives a black impression on paper on a white field.
Fig. 11, depicting the head of Zeus (in the Vatican), and plate II D are reproductions of woodcuts.
Much depends on the art of printmaking; they are preliminarily called so. seasoning(see) so that pressing a sheet of paper with a roller on various parts of the engraving corresponds to the strength or tenderness of the drawing. Wood engraving, although capable of reproducing pictures, is even better when it is free from the requirement of close imitation of the original, i.e., in itself constitutes the original. The engraver uses chisels, like that, which is shown in Fig. 1.
Corrections in wood engraving are difficult; the only thing that can be done is to cut out the damaged place with a drill, insert a new piece there, on which to engrave. If printing is done not from a copper plate, but from a piece of wood, then usually after a certain number of impressions, the outline of the inserted piece becomes visible. For drawings and outlines, incised woodcuts are often made for speed and cheapness; when printed, it turns out, as was said, a white figure on a black field (Fig. 9).
Zincography, invented by Gillot, there is a method of convex engraving on zinc. Initially, it consisted in transferring a printed or other design onto the surface of a zinc board, then exposed to an acid, which left intact the features of the design made by paint containing oil. Now this method of drawing has received an extremely extensive development and application since the drawing is transferred to the board by photographic means. It will be described separately in the Zincography article. The engravings in text 9, 10 and 11 are galvanoplastic copies from genuine woodcuts; the rest of the engravings in this article and the tables are zinc types.
Auxiliaries D. Engravers, especially English and American engravers, sometimes use auxiliary machines, and special machines are used for engraving from medals and bas-reliefs, which complete the engraving without the help of the artist at all (see Machine engraving). In addition, in our time, clichés are used for printing, prepared by the action of light on light-sensitive plates with the addition of various manipulations (see Light painting). The galvanic current serves as a tool for engravers either to dissolve the metal or to precipitate it. The first case occurs in etching, when, instead of immersing in acid, a board with a pattern made with a needle on a ground varnish is placed in a solution. blue vitriol(see electroplating engraving [ glyphography, or the preparation of convex copper engravings, described at the end of the article "Electroplating Engraving" invented by Palmer. The copper board is blackened with sulfur liver and covered with a primer consisting of wax, rosin, spermaceti, etc. substances mixed with zinc white. On this, they draw with a sharp tool, cutting through the soil to a black surface, without exposing the copper underneath. Then they all graphite and, having precipitated copper, they get a copper plate, which can be easily removed from a black copper board.]) and subjected to the dissolving action of a galvanic current. The recessed features obtained in this way are thinner than those etched with acid, and therefore the intersection of the lines comes out better by the galvanoplastic method. In other cases, its besieging effect is used both to obtain a special kind of engravings (galvanography) and to correct errors in glazing with a chisel. To do this, electroplated copper is deposited on a part of the board, covering the rest with varnish, smoothing its surface and engraving on it again. Electroplating covers copper engravings with iron (steel - acierer), through which the engraving becomes able to give a larger number of prints without damage; when the iron begins to wear out, it can be completely dissolved and the engraving can be steeled again without any damage to its subtlety. Electroplating can copy engravings (Scamoni heliogravure, see Light painting). Most often it is used for the manufacture of copper clichés from wood engravings and zincographs in cases where such a large number of prints is expected that a wood engraving cannot deliver without damage. All the considered methods of printing involve printing in one tone, in one color. Prints, printed with many colors, in fact, do not require special methods of coloring. Already in the 16th century. Schaeffer printed letters with two colors, preparing a separate engraving for each color; the printing of drawings under cameos took place in a similar way. These issues will be discussed in the article: Printing with paints. Engraving of medals and coins - see Medal art; engraving of maps - see Maps; musical signs (see), seals - see Carving. Various engraving methods are described in the works "Des mordans, des vernis et des planches dans l" art du graveur ou Traité complet de la gravure par P. Deleschamps (1836) and "Les Procedés de la gravure par A. de Lostalot". G. etching in great detail with applications of many samples G. set out in "Traité de la gravure à l" eau forte par Maxime Lalanne "(1881). Also useful is "Traité de la gravure à l" eau forte par Robert "(1891). It also contains a historical sketch of G. on metal and in other ways. In Russian there is" Quick Guide to engraving on copper with strong vodka" A. Somov (1885).
Machine engraving.- In engravings there are places where it is necessary to draw rows of uniform parallel straight or curved lines. In these cases, you can use mechanical devices; the simplest of these consists of a metal ruler that can be moved very small amounts parallel to itself. A very thin steel or, even better, a diamond cutter is drawn along the engraving along the ruler with constant pressure. Sometimes it is necessary to draw a series of lines, darker and darker, in order to represent, for example, a gradual decrease in light towards the horizon or, conversely, upward; for this, a cup is placed on top of the incisor, which remains empty when drawing weak lines; after that, one, two or more pellets (2 1 / 2 mm) are successively placed in the cup, which causes the cutter to cut deeper and deeper lines, which take more and more ink when printing (Jobard in Brussels). Sometimes the engraving is done in wavy, concentric circular, elliptical lines using appropriate machines. Sometimes, to decorate a metal surface, a series of straight, wavy or generally curved lines, parallel to each other or mutually intersecting, is cut on it. - It will be guilloche(cm.). The most remarkable application of machines to G. is found in the so-called. portrait machines (tour à portrait), which appeared at the end of the last or the beginning of this century (Marquis de Parois), for G. on copper copies from medals and bas-reliefs. Usually, an engraving board is varnished and the drawing carved on it by a machine is etched with strong vodka, then corrected, where necessary, with a chisel. The best of the machines of this kind is Colas (Colas), arranged in the fifties; the essence of its device is as follows. A horizontal platform on which a copper or steel engraving board is placed can be moved by equal small amounts by means of a screw; at its edge is another platform, movable in a vertical direction. Movement of both platforms simultaneously. In the space between the two platforms there is a trolley movable in a direction parallel to the planes of both platforms. The trolley can also move perpendicular to the vertical platform. It is equipped with horizontal and vertical rods; one with a blunt point, the other with a sharp steel or diamond end. A bas-relief or a medal with which they want to engrave is attached to a vertical platform. When moving the trolley, a blunt pin moves along the bas-relief, and at the same time a sharp chisel moves along the engraving board. When the first moves along the flat part of the surface, the cutter draws a straight line; when the first is raised to the convex part and lowered from it, the direction of movement of the cutter becomes wavy. The engraving gets a relief look, a pleasant, like a metal surface. Having moved a little platform with a screw, a blunt pin is again drawn along the bas-relief from beginning to end, and so on. , then approaching, representing light on the convex parts and shadow on the concave parts of the relief. The print from the engraving takes on an embossed appearance with a pleasing metallic tone. For a sample, we reproduce one of them in Fig. 12.
In addition to the Kolas machine, there are also Hefel, Bath, Wagner, Perkins, Steyerwald and many others. The latter named, engraving with very close strokes, giving it from a distance a semblance of an aquatint, very faithfully reproduces small details; but prints of this kind are not particularly beautiful.
F. Petrushevsky.
Engraving (history).- The time to which G.'s invention refers cannot be determined not only with accuracy, but also approximately. Some historians find the beginnings of this art in the ancient world; others lead it from Asia, namely from Japan and China, from where G. on a tree was, in their opinion, brought to Europe through trade relations. In any case, gravure as a method of reproduction of images came into use in our part of the world not earlier than the second half of the 14th or the beginning of the 15th century, and convex engraving appeared earlier than in-depth engraving - even before the invention of printing books in typesetting. The oldest monument of G. that has come down to us on a tree with a certain date is the engraving "St. Christopher" (in the collection of Lord Spencer), marked 1423; but there is every reason to believe that even up to this time in the Netherlands and Germany, especially in the cities along the Rhine, there were - of course, still very crude - printed xylographic pictures, mostly of a pious content, provided with a text corresponding to it. In all likelihood, already from the places mentioned, G.'s skill on wood later passed to Italy and France. From pictures on separate sheets there was a very close transition to polytypes in books, which appeared to replace expensive, hand-made miniatures, just as the works of a printing press replaced manuscripts that were far from accessible to everyone. One of the oldest books illustrated with woodcuts is The Mirror of Human Salvation (Speculum humanae salvationis), a work whose first edition, printed in Harlem by L. Koster, was published earlier than 1442. It was followed by The Bible for the Poor (Biblia pauperum) and other editions with wood engravings by unknown carvers, still very imperfect, but reflecting the influence of such gifted artists as the brothers V. Eiki and Memling. The leadership in the production of such illustrations for a long time belonged to Holland and Flanders, with which other countries in this respect were equal only later. Around the same time, and according to the assumption of some writers, as early as the very beginning of the 15th century, another method of convex engraving was practiced, the so-called "lattice engraving" (gr. criblée), which consisted in the fact that a copper board turned into a polytype plate through gouging it has more or less large and frequent round dimples and irregular depressions in those places that in the print should depict light and penumbra (Fig. 13).
A new era for G. came with the invention of printing prints from metal boards, cut into the depths. This invention, like many other discoveries, happened by accident. For a long time, goldsmiths have resorted to decorating their products with the so-called black, that is, with an alloy of tin, silver or copper with a certain amount of borax and sulfur; this alloy, while still hot, filled the strokes of a design engraved with a chisel on a smooth silver or gold surface; the excess of the alloy protruding from the strokes was removed, the alloy, having cooled, became solid, and thus an image was obtained, as if painted with black paint on a brilliant background. This kind of ornamentation was in the middle of the XV century. in great use among the Italians, especially in the manufacture of sacred vessels and other precious items of church utensils. The works he did were called nielles(niello), and the masters who produced these works - nellators. More than anywhere else, the art of nielle flourished in what was then the center of artistic activity, Florence. One of the masters there, Tomaso, or, for short, Maso, Finigverra in 1452, performing Pax in black [In Catholic church usage, this is the name of a small metal image, to which, during a solemn mass, when "Agnus Dei" is sung, the priest gives members of the clergy and those praying, addressing everyone with the words "Pah tecum" (peace ti).] for the local baptist, with the image of the heavenly coronation of the Virgin, and, wanting to judge the state of his work, rubbed the engraved, as his comrades did, with a mixture of soot with oil, in order to then remove this paint, make the necessary corrections in the image and, finally, fill it with the aforementioned alloy. A damp rag accidentally fell on the unfinished nielle, and
- - - carving an ornament, image, etc. on the surface of solid materials - metal, wood, stone, glass. It is used in the manufacture of printing plates for engravings, shafts of printing machines for fabrics and wallpaper...
Encyclopedia of fashion and clothing
- - application to the surface of solid materials of inscriptions, drawings, patterns, etc. dir. engraving tools. G. on metal is also produced by etching to-tami, anode-hydraulic methods. processing...
Big encyclopedic polytechnic dictionary
- - manufacturing process printed form, by cutting out letterpress blanks or intaglio prints...
Brief Dictionary for printing
- - or galvanic etching consists in etching a pattern made with a needle on a copper board coated with a special varnish, not with strong vodka, but with the help of galvanic current. The drawing board is placed in...
- - there is a method of depicting objects on metals, wood, stone, used almost exclusively for the purpose of reproducing these images on paper with one or many colors ...
encyclopedic Dictionary Brockhaus and Euphron
- - see Glass. production...
Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron
- - cutting out an image, ornament, inscription, etc. on the surface of solid materials - metal, stone, wood, glass, linoleum - with cutters and other tools ... Synonym dictionary
"Engraving" in books
Plane engraving
author Melnikov IlyaArmor engraving
From the book Artistic Metalworking. Engraving author Melnikov IlyaPlane engraving
From the book Artistic Metalworking. Engraving author Melnikov IlyaPlane engraving Artistic manual planar two-dimensional engraving is used in jewelry practice for decorating the surface of an item by applying a contour pattern, drawing, portrait, multi-figure or landscape compositions, as well as for
Armor engraving
From the book Artistic Metalworking. Engraving author Melnikov IlyaBroken engraving Broken (three-dimensional) engraving is a method in which a relief or three-dimensional round metal sculpture is created with a cutter. Broken engraving is divided into convex (positive, in which the relief pattern is higher than the background, which is deepened
21 Engraving with iodine
From the book How to understand the complex laws of physics. 100 simple and fun experiences for kids and their parents author Dmitriev Alexander Stanislavovich21 Engraving with iodine For the experiment, we need: a piece of iron with a smooth surface (for example, an old knife or an unnecessary metal part), a needle or an awl, iodine, a candle. All waves and waves - let's try to get distracted and do something interesting and safe. For example,
Black engraving
author Podolsky Yuriy FedorovichBlacken engraving This method is used to make the image engraved on metal more contrast. This method is mainly used for engraving silver products. When engraving for blackening, recesses are made using engravers.
Gloss engraving
From the book Engraving Works [Techniques, techniques, products] author Podolsky Yuriy FedorovichGloss engraving The decorative effect in this type of engraving is achieved by contrasting the matte or dark metal surface against the shiny lines of the engraving. In this way, not only patterns are made, but also calligraphic and handwritten inscriptions.
Text engraving
From the book Engraving Works [Techniques, techniques, products] author Podolsky Yuriy FedorovichEngraving of texts When engraving a convex text, excess metal is cut off with a chisel, chisel or cut to a depth of at least 0.3 mm. The finished letter (number) should protrude above the end of the punch by 0.3–0.5 mm or more. In the normal mode of manual stuffing with punches or
Mechanical engraving
From the book Engraving Works [Techniques, techniques, products] author Podolsky Yuriy FedorovichMechanical engraving special equipment and the use of advanced tools. At the same time, it is possible to machine a part, engrave, drill and mill an associated profile in one installation.
Engraving
From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (GR) of the author TSBEngraving with metal and abrasive tools, abrasive jet engraving
author Melnikov IlyaEngraving with metal and abrasive tools, abrasive jet engraving Metal and abrasive tools engrave drawings, landscapes, portraits. When engraving, engraving circles of small sizes are used. To the varieties of this
Ultrasonic engraving
From Wark's book. Processing methods. Materials and tools. Decorative coating. Engraving work author Melnikov IlyaEngraving by ultrasound Ultrasonic processing of solid materials occurs under the action of an oscillating ultrasonic tool in a liquid medium containing abrasive powder. By its physical nature, ultrasound is an elastic wave of high
Chapter 6. Engraving
author Ermakov Mikhail ProkopevichChapter 6. Engraving
6.4.1. Black engraving
From the book Fundamentals of Design. Artistic processing of metal [ Tutorial] author Ermakov Mikhail Prokopevich6.4.1. Engraving for blackening If necessary, an image engraved on metal can be made more contrast by filling its lines with sealing wax. The metal is heated and sealing wax is applied to it. As it melts, the sealing wax fills the engraved grooves. When in-depth
6.4.2. Gloss engraving
From the book Fundamentals of Design. Artistic Metalworking [Tutorial] author Ermakov Mikhail Prokopevich6.4.2. Gloss engraving The decorative effect in this type of engraving is achieved by contrasting a matte or dark metal surface with shiny engraving lines. In this way, not only patterns are made, but also inscriptions. Used for engraving
engraver (German) Gravieren- cut on something) - This is a specialist in engraving drawings, inscriptions, which are performed using special tools. There are special engraving machines, drills, drills, pantographs and handicraft tools (cutters, gravers, needles). Sometimes acid etching is used to create relief images on metal, glass, wood, and plastic. As a rule, the most complex and ornate patterns are made by hand. The profession is suitable for those who are interested in drawing and work and farming (see choosing a profession for interest in school subjects).
According to the technique of execution, engraving is of three types:
- planar, or two-dimensional - engraving on a plane;
- defensive, or three-dimensional, which results in relief and even three-dimensional figures. There are 2 ways: convex (or positive) engraving, in which the drawing is higher than the general background and deep (or negative), in which the relief is below the background;
- engraving under "niello" used when working with silver: the recesses made with a engraver and chisels are filled several times with black sealing wax and varnish.
For special expressiveness and decoration of engravings, methods such as etching, chasing, milling, notching, engraving sampling are used.
Technological progress has also touched the engraving art. With the advent of engraving special software products And graphic editors the possibilities of making patterns and inscriptions with amazing effects have significantly expanded. New mechanized engraving methods have appeared: laser, diamond, photoengraving.
Features of the profession
Functional duties of the engraver:
- object modeling;
- choice of material for work;
- choice of processing method, tool;
- actual engraving, its fine-tuning and improvement;
- sharpening of engraving tools;
- adjustment of engraving machines and devices.
Pros and cons of the profession
pros
- The demand for the profession, especially in jewelry;
- decent wages;
- creative profession;
- Opportunity to work as a sole proprietor.
Minuses
- Intense sedentary work is the cause of diseases of the neck, joints of the arms and hands;
- when processing metal or ornamental stones, industrial dust is formed that settles in the respiratory tract or causes allergies.
Place of work
Jewelry and art workshops and shops, printing, textile, pulp and paper industries. Companies providing funeral services.
Important qualities
- Creative skills
- artistic taste
- perseverance
- accuracy
- thoroughness
- excerpt
- concentration
- attention to detail
- increased tactile sensitivity
- hardness of the hands
- well-developed fine motor skills
- good eye
- developed visual memory
- the ability to create an image according to a verbal description.
Where to study as an engraver (education)
Engraver profession can be obtained in vocational schools(specialty "Engraver") or in universities (specialties "Technology of artistic processing of materials", "Technology of processing precious stones and metals"):
Vocational schools:
- Vocational School No. 19;
- Vocational School No. 130;
- Art Lyceum No. 303 in Moscow.
Universities:
- Moscow State Academy of Public Utilities and Construction;
- Moscow State Evening Metallurgical Institute;
- Moscow State Mining University;
- Moscow State Engineering University;
- Moscow State University instrumentation and informatics;
- Russian University of Chemical Technology of Instrumentation and Informatics.
Salary
The remuneration of an engraver depends on the qualifications of the specialist, the place of his work, the volume of orders, the region in which he works. In the Moscow region, the average salary as of April 2016 is 40 thousand rubles, in the Krasnoyarsk Territory - about 30 thousand rubles.
Salary as of 04/23/2019
Russia 15000—70000 ₽
Moscow 30000—75000 ₽
Career steps and prospects
The career growth of an engraver, like any representative of craft professions, is associated with the improvement of skills, advanced training, starting one's own business, and successful entrepreneurship.
Stichel- the main tool of the engraver when handmade. For drawing lines of different widths, depths, shapes, there are various types of sections of engravers:
- A sharp chisel for contouring the pattern;
- Messerstichel - a knife cutter for thin deep lines;
- Facetshtichel - faceted cutter for wide, shallow lines;
- Justirstichel - adjusting cutter for rounded lines;
- Flachstichel - flat cutter for flat lines and alignment of planes;
- Bolstichel - a semicircular cutter for fonts, recesses and round selections;
- Fadenstichel - a thread cutter for decorative crafts.
Mechanized engraving methods significantly increase labor productivity:
Mechanized diamond engraving is designed for applying letters, drawings, logos to metal surfaces, wood, ornamental stones using a diamond cutter on an engraving machine. Before engraving by means of vector graphics, models of the future masterpiece are created. The work of the engraving machine is controlled by a special computer program, which allows you to set parameters, make changes to texts and figures, change the scale. Diamond engraving leaves a sparkling reflective mark on the product.
Mechanical photo engraving is an impact engraving performed by equipment with diamond needles. The stronger the blow, the deeper the trace. Different depth of the trace allows you to get different shades of gray, which makes the engraving of photographs especially expressive.
Laser engraving or marking is used for mass production of souvenir and promotional items. The method consists in melting the material from a focused radiation pulse, as a result of which a trace is formed on the surface. The engraving depth depends on the power of the machine, the number of passes, the selected material. Two types of laser markers are used:
- fiber for metals;
- gas for wood, plastic, glass, leather, etc.
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